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To the memory of Prof. Dr. Yahya Kemal Kaya who devoted himself to the improvement of the Turkish higher education.
T H E TURKİSH HİGHER EDUCATİON I N T H E C O U R S E O F R E F O R M A T I O N
by
Prof. Dr. ZİYA BURSALIOĞLU
T h e a im of this article is to revievv briefly the early reforms of the T u r k i s h university a n d to c o m p a r e impartially the last two laws g o v e r n i n g the T u r k i s h higher education vvitlı implementative e v a l u a t i o n s . T h e m a i n topic will be the system of the T u r k i s h h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . Nevertheless systems a re administered by m e n , therefore it is i m p o s s i b l e to evacie administrative behaviors vvhich funetion systems.
77;*? Turkish University in Retrospect
Af ter the T u r k i s h R e p u b l i c had b e e n f o u n d e d in 1923, İstanbul Darülfünun w a s transformed into İstanbul University in the year cf 1933.
T h e reasons tor this reformation w e r e declared by the M i n i - t e r of E d u c a t i o n at the time, Dr. Reşit G a l i p , as the lack of c o o r d i n a t i o n a m o n g faculties a n d other units to p r o v i d e scientific research a n d publicati :>n d u e to the outside personal activities of instructors.
T h e law 4936 passed in 1946, the b e g i n i n g of multiparty system, a n d the laws 115, 119 enacted in 1960 after the militaıy r e v o l u t i o n liıııed at i n t r o d u c i n g administrative atıtonoıny a n d a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m ir.to the T u r k i s h university a n d they \vere ensured by the aıticle 120 of the 1961 C o n s t i t u t i o n . İt was c l a i m e d that because of this Constitutional a u t e n o m y , universities w e re p i a c e d outside any eiTective supeıvision a n d evauaation e x c e p t by self-elected administrators. Therefore, universities d i d not e v e n a b i d e by the plans a n d programs envisagecl by the State P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t a n d the Parliament. T h e persistent d e c i s i o n s of university senates to k e e p enrolments do\vn and e v e n to l o w e r them, the h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n ol ful) and associaie professors in m e t r o p o l i t a n cities (İstanbul. A n k a r a , İ/mir) in contrast to tlıose with serious vacancıes in the c o u n t r y s i d e a re c l a i m e d as s o m e of the clrawbacks of this a u t o n o m y (1).
Af ter the s e c o n d jnililary intervention in 1972, in 1973 the " L a w of
! niversıiK's' n u m b e r e d P 5 0 \vas passed: a n d a l t h o u g h a Council of Higher Education (CHE) w a s established by this law, A n k a r a
University took the case to the Constiiutional Cotırt a n d had it o v t rruled on the g r o u n d s that the governınenf representatives in the C o u n c i l o u t n u m b e r e d those ol uni\ersılies.
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After the third military intervention in 1980. ıhe ne\v Constitution granted not administrative but o n l y scientific atıtonomy to universities, ınd ıhe n e w " L a w of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n " , n u m b e r e d 25<i was e n a c t e d in 1981 ımplementing this limited atıtonomy. İt constitutes an arnusing o ıtrast that, as stated by Selçuk Kantarcıoğlu, s o m e of the m e m b e r s cf the reestablished C H E w e r e the leading a c a d e m i c administratoıs \vho e n j o y e d a n d e x e r c i s e d ıhe p r e v i o u s full a u t o n o m y (2).
The Laıv Of Higher Education
T h i s law w h i c h vvas follovved by a flovv of regulations aiıneci al ıhe integration of the objeetives. struetures. a n d processes of Itigher e d u c a t i o n . it a i m e d at the integration ol higher e d u c a t i o n not. o n i y ::>f ali universities i n e l u d i n g the ivvo with special statu.s. but also ali inst tutions of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , although most of them used to be vvithin the jurisdietion of the Ministry of National E d u c a t i o n . As a result. al! e. > IK*r training institutions \vith three or Ibur year instructional p e r i o d s \vere transferred a n d attached to elosest universities \vithout su fficient orientation time. T h e p o n d e r e d p h i l o s o p h y of this cjuick transactr an was not o n l y to raise the stanelards of teacher training, b u l also to i r c e ;e: eher training enterprise from political infiltration and ministerial violations. As a result, 22 colleges (facıılties) of e d u c a t i o n a n d 2a junior colleges of e d u c a t i o n were created out of p r e v i o u s teacher training instittıtioı s. This has certainly b e e n the unıversal trend in the history of teacher e d u c a t i o n : hovvever, a c h i e v e m e n t has b e e n d e t e r m i n e d by the situation of readıness.
S u c h a structtıral a n d administrative integration has l o n g b e e n i n d i s p e n s a b l e in T u r k e y particularly for s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n vvhich consists of m o r e tiran 20 types of s e c o n d a r y schools. A true integration at the level of higher e d u c a t i o n vvill p r o b a b l y i'orce s e c o n d a r y e d u c a a o n , a l t h o u g h a reverse d e v e l o p m e n t , in the same directıon.
T h e objeetives of higher e d u c a t i o n in the ne\v law, partly i n s p i r e d by those objeetives previously d e t e r m i n e d a n d m e n t i o n e d , c: n be s u m m a r i z e d as tollovvs:
To train a student so as
1 - To d e v e l o p a n d sustain his loyalty to Atatürk nationalism n the clirection of his reforms and principles,
2 - To possess the cultural, m o r a l and h u m a n values of the T u r k i s h nation,
3 - To c o n s i d e r social interest a b o v c his o\vn, 4 - To l o v e his country, nation, a n d iamilv.
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5 - To be coascious ot" his dulies and responsibilities, tovvards he T u r k i s h R e p u b l i c a n d to s h o w ıhem in his behavior,
6 - To think i n d e p e n d e n t l y and scientifically \vithin the w o r l d perspective, 7 - To be respectful to h u m a n rights,
8 - To d e v e l o p physically and physchologically in a b a l a n c e d way,
9 - To accjuire the knovvledge and skill of an o c e u p a t i o n so as to m a k e a g o o d living,
10 - To contribute to the social. e c o n o m i c a n d ctıltural d e v e l o p m e n t of the T u r k i s h State in order to promote its partnership in c o n t e m p o r a ı y civilizalion.
The University Sııbject to integration and Reformation
T h e university is the most difficull educational instittıtion to c h a n g e in almost every countıy. As the representative of o n e of the three ele nents of the O t t o m a n administration. the T u r k i s h university maintained this characterıstic e v e n after the periods of militaıy administration.
O r i g i n a l l y the T u r k i s h university vvas o r g a n i z e d after the G e r m a n m o d e l u n d e r the influence of the G e r m a n seholars \vho took refuge >n İstanbul University and later in A n k a r a University d u r i n g the two \v o r . d wars.
Follovving A m e r i c a n a id a n d influence, n e w universities w e re established a c c o r d i n g l y . But the classical university maintained its organizational strueture a n d administrative tradition w i t h i n the framevvork of the general university laws. A l t h o u g h four university lavvs w e r e passed after the f o u n d a t i o n of the R e p u b l i c . the most contrasting ones a re the 1 ast t w o . A c a d e m i c , bureaucratic. judiciary, military a n d lay cireles vary disaıncly in their evaluations. F o r comparative p u r p o s e s , s o m e organizational a n d administrative d i m e n s i o n s of these tvvo laws a re e x p l a i n e d belo\v.
The Size ofDecision Making Organs
T h e n e w law significantly r e d u c e d the size of the university senate a n d the faculty c o u n c i l w h i c h a re a u t h o r i z e d to m a k e a c a d e m i c decisioııs. T h e senate lost o n e third of its participants, d u e to the o n e senatör aasteacl of rvvo f r o m each faculty plus the d e a n . Foımerly the faculty c o a r c i l vvas c o m p o s e d of full a n d associate professors tlae n u m b e r of vvhich e x c e e d e d o n e or rvvo h u n d r e d s as in tlae ca.se of Faculty of Letters or vledicine.
Presently it consists of o n e assistanı, rvvo associate, a n d ıhree full professors plus d e p a r t m e n d heads. In o r d e r to k e e p the prınciple of smallness, s o m e faculties o f social scıences \vere r e d u c e d to three
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departments of specialization. T h i s formal but not functional inıitation a r o u s e d justifiahle eriticisin. bul the a c a d e m i c administrators alreaçly d i s p l e a s e d or u n h a p p y \vit)ı larg*. scale deci.sion organs welcoır ed the spirit of the princıple in general.
T h e administrative c o u n c i l of the university a n d that of the faculty r e m a i n e d almost the same in size, but c h a n g e d in funciton. First tlıey a re c o n s i d e r e d as assisting, in a sense, s u p p o r t i n g organs to the presi de nt a n d to the clean respeetively. S e c o n d , most of the L m c t i o n s of the aculty c o u n c i l a re transferred to the administrative c o u n c i l . T h e r e l o ı e , the a c a d e m i c administrator w h o previously a v o i d e d calling for the l o r m e r frequently because of the difficulties in getting a cjııorum is no\\ o b l i g e d to meet this o r g a n tvvice a semester a n d can vvork w i t h m o r e auıhority t h r o u g h a smaller b o d y with ability for m a k i n g qııick decisions.
Distribution of Authority and Responsibility
T h e n e w law envisaged the Iran fer of aıttborily jroın conncih to administrators. T h e president a n d ıhe dean a re n o w e q u i p p e d wıth m o r e authorıty w h i c h previously b e l o n g e d • • •• ı lıe senate a n d the faculty c o u n c i l . E v e n the department head vvho tısed to ı . a s y m b o l in the depaıtırcni is n o w c h a r g e d \vith full authority a n d responsibility of departmental decisions a n d their ımplementations. T h e centralization of aut. lority i n v o h e d b o t h a c a d e m i c and administrative funetions. like tire ne\v authority of the clean to c o m p o s e a jury for assistant professoısl ip or direct disciplinaıy p u n i s h m e n t of a student-after d u e investigation-without taking s u c h nıatters to the c o u n c i l c o n c e ı n e d . Similarly, m u c h authority of the senate is n o w centralizecl on the president.
ne Administrative Hierarchy and Team
For ıhe administration of higher e d u c a t i o n , a " C o u n c i l of H . g h e r l ' d u c a t o n " vvas f o u n d e d by the n e w lavv. O n e third of its m e m b e r s is a p p o i n t e d by the Fiead of State (President of T u r k e y ) , o n e third bv the
•oııncil of Ministers, and the last third is eleeted by the Interun versity
• aiı ıl. İn additkan, t\vo m e m b e r s fronı the Ministıy of N a t : o n a l
! duıation a n d o n e from the C e n e r a l Staff a re s o m e w h a t ex-officio. T h e n e w l a w also p r o v i d e d another " C o u n c i l o f Supeıvision for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n " the m e m b e r s of w h i c h is eleeted by the Cİ IF.
A g o v e r n m e n t d e c ı e e , valid as la w. passed on D e c e m b e r 21, 1987, c h a n g e d the Arttcle 6 of the n e w la\\. and dividecl the CF1E inte t ıree organs as the G e n e r a l C o u n c i l . tiıe ıa.'sident. a n d üıe Extcııtive C o m m i t t e e . T h i s division rendered the system more elosed from the
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v i e w p o i n t of participatıon in clecision m a k i n g , because the funelamental principJe of denıocratic administrarion is nor to increase the executive p o w e r , but to increase the degree of participation. F r o m the Aılicle 8 of the regulations based on this decree, it is u n d e r s t o o d that the authority to select deans can be delegated to the Fxecııtive C o m m i t t e e a n d has b e e n so, On the other hancl, the Article i 3() of the Constitution m a k e s it imperative that deans s h o u l d be selected a n d a p p o i n t e d by the C11E. T h e fact that a function a n d authority allocated by the C o n s t k u i i o n vvas delegated by a decree a n d regulations created a legal issue o p e n to d i s c u s s i o n . W h i l e half of the professors of law with w h o m the writer c o n s u l t e d expressed their opinion.s in this direction, the other half stated the case s i m p l y against the (Constitution. T h e significant part of it is not the fact that m o r e than a h u n d r e d deans have been a p o i n t e d in this v a y since then, but h o w the institutions outside the system of higher eck a tion like o p p o s i t i o n parties, a n d inside the system like six facultıes of law o v e r l o o k e d this at least debatable legal issue.
A most significant a n d controversial change i n t r o d u c e d by the n e w law w a s the replacement of elective p r o c e d u r e by a p p o i n t i v e pr:>ceclure.
Previously, the president of a university vvas eleeted by full anıl associate professors of that university. T h e clean w a s eleeted by the fact Itv c o u n c i l c o m p o s e d of the same academics. 'I'bc ne w laıv ret/uirecf an administrative team. A c c o i ' d i n g to ıt. the president of a university vvas a p p o i n t e d by the Fleacl of State from a m o n g the four n o m i n e e s , i n e l u d i n g outsiclers, presented by the CFİF until 1992. Similarly, the clean is a p p o i n t e d by the CFİF from a m o n g the three n o m i n e e s presented by the president. T h e depaıtment h e a d p r e v i o u s l y eleeted by the facultv c o u n c i l is inclirectly a p p o i n t e d by the d e a n . İn arguing their case, the p r o p o n e n t s of this p r o c e d u r e gave e x a m p l e s of the disadvantages of the e x c h a n g e theoıy attributed to the elective system. T h e o p p o n e n t s , in turn, concentratecl on the cases of political infiltration particula to the a p p o i n t i v e system. B o t h parties missecl the quality factor w h i c h surpasses these two. İn other W O J C 1 S , vvithout elear-cut specifications of the qualities of the a c a d e m i c administrator at every e e h e l o n , e a c h a p p r o a c h w o u l d entail its o w n p r o b a b l e risks. Nevertheless, by a basic p r i n c i p l e of administration, a superior s h o u l d at least have a v o i c e in the selection of his subordinates, if not a clirect right. T h e re w e r e cases w h e n a semate d i d neDt elect the c a n d i d a t e of the president as his vice president.
77?e Academic Title and Service
A c c o r d i n g to the former law, p r o m o t i o n to full p r o f e s s o r s h i p r e q u i r e d the e v a l u a t i o n of a c a n d i d a t e t h r o u g h a jury o r g a n i z e d by the faculty c o u n c i l ,
a n d the a p p r o v a l ot the jıııy evaluation by both the faculty e o u n e i l a n : l the university senate.The ne\v la\v authorizes the president to o r g a n i z e : jıııy for the candidate a n d the jury reports a re evaluated in the un versity administrative c o u n c i l \vhich legally is not an a c a d e m i c o r g a n .
D u e to exces.sive inbreeclıng. ıhe a c a d e m i c cad re of o l d universities have h e e n tınnecessarily larger. On the other ivand. the ne\v universities tavc ahvays h e e n in neeel of acaelemic support. T h e nevv la\v stipulated three years seıvice in another university as a prereejuisite for prome)tion to full professorship. A l s o full professors \vith less ıhan eight years ol i e r v i e v V v o u l c l he suhject to rota l i ve service, uneler certam conelitions. T h e lirst stiptılation vvas removecl in 19<SK. T h e seconel has h e e n a case of informal agreement het\veen the presielent and the clean.
İn o r d e r to proviele a c a d e m i c llovv 10 n e \ v universities. three year : .çivice after eloctorate as o n e ol the conelitions tor p r o m o t i o n to assistant p r o f e s s o r s h i p vvas not reeıuirecl in another university besides the candielate's o\vn. This c()nelition vvas als< > o m m i t t e d s o m e time- ago.
As tar as the a c a d e m i c loael is c o n c e r n e d , it is at least ten hours a \ve e l ; for full anel associate proiessors. T h e relative \veights of the elements af this l o a d ; s u c h as instruetion. practice. aelvising ete. a re d e t e r m i n e d hy the C f l k . Presidents, deans. direetors of institules anel higher s c h o o l s a re e x e m p t from a c a d e m i c loael. T h e i r assistanis a n d department heads a re c h a r g e d \vitiı half of this loael.
The Disciplinary! Organs Ana\ Procedures
T h e nevv la\v c h a r g e d the president as the disciplinary h e a d of the university, anel the dean as that of the faculty. hy the same t o k e n . (he administrative councils of the university and the facult\' s h o u l d serve as d i sc i p 1 i n a ıy o r ga n s.
As for the judicıary cases. previously the disciplinary o r g a n for the a c a d e m i c staff vvas the senate \vhich c o n s i d e r e d a n d c o n e l u d e d the m o t i o n s hased on d u e investigation anel maele hy the kctılty administrative c o u n c i l . Because of lengthy a g e n d a of the senate ı nel diverse evaluations of its large n u m h e r of m e m b e r s , s u c h cases t c o k m o n t h s a n d years to be c o n e l u d e d . T h e nevv legislation authorize<J he presidential team-president and vice presidents - to consicler anel ceaneluele s u c h cases i n v o l v m o a c a d e m i c administrators. A comnıit ee c o m p o s e c l ot' the three m e m b e r s of the university administrative c o a r c i l vv'oukl deaJ w i t h s u c h cases i n v o l v i n g instructional m e m b e r s in the s a m e vvay. İn b o t h cases, the clecision woulel be m a d e vvhether to o p e n final investigation t h r o u g h judiciary organs.
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T h e disciplinary organs and procedures d i d not c h a n g e significantly in the n e w la\v. S u c h cases a re to he dealt vvith at the faculty level as hefore.
except that the clean is no\v authorized to d e c i d e i n d e p e n d e n t l y , after d u e investigation, on the specific articic of disciplinary regulations, vvithout taking the case to lacuky administrative c o u n c i l .
Financial Organs And Procedures
By the p r e v i o u s lavv. each jacully mas a legal enli/y w h i c h c.ııısed the university to he a federalion of faculties. As a result, the clean w a s the final authority to a p p r o v e payments. Also c a c h faculty had its o\\ n hudget
\vhich \vas negotiatecl and settled \vith the Ministıy of Pinance lor current expenclifures a n d the State P l a n n i n g Department for investments. D raf t a n d c o n s a l i d a t e d hudgets vvere finally discııssed a n d a p p r o v e c l hy the Parliament.
T h e status ot each hıcully as a legal enfity created c o o r d i n a t i v e c ifiiculties e v e n in u ı 's ot a c a d e m i c calenclers and recjuirements at v a r i o u s levcls.
Budgetaıy seperatıon not only contributed to ıhese clifficulties hut also recjuired p e r s o n a l and political contacts on the part of e a c h faculty administrator. T h e n e w lavv permitted status as a legal entity onlv, to the university a n d re(|uired hudgetaıy integration. O n l y the president is a u t h o r i z e d to a p p r o v e payments \vith possıhle d c l e g a t i o n t > v i c e presidents a n d deans. w h i c h is preferred h\' the presidents o large universities.
T h e ne\v legislatıon p r o v i d e s for various financial lacilities s u c h as the e x e m p t i o n from taxes in case of grants. e x c e p t i o n a l status İroni p u h l i c lavvs o[ general accounts a n d auetions. a n d full allocation ol ıevolving capital i n c o m e s to generatıng units. in the last case, half of s u c h i n c o m e
\vas utilizeci for the needs of the unit, a n d the other half w.ıs to be distributed a m o n g t-he staff m e m b e r s of that unit.
Political Involveıuenl And Public Service
T h e nevv lavv b a n n e d m e m b e r s h i p in a n d activity on b e h a l f of a n y political paıty by a c a d e m i c staff a n d student b o d y . W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of H i b l i c seıvice, m e m b e r s h i p in anv association vvas suhject to the permıssion of the president u p o n the a p p r o v a l hy the clean. Nevcrtheless if a n y a c a d e m i c is called to SCIA'C in ıhe (iouncil of Ministers. the Parliament, or other p u b l i c institution-vvithout hein.y attachecl to any paıty- his right to rettirn to h i s university at the enci of s u c h service is reserved.
O t h e r p e r s o n n e l matters such as salaıy scales. leaves ete. a re suhject :o the
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" U n i v e r s i t y Perscannei La w". T h o s e rights anel cases w h i c h an? not mentionecl in the special la\vs ol'the university a re suhject to geneı al lavvs.
Ccntralization Versus Decentralizalion
T h e nevv a n d legalizecl trend in ıhe T u r k i s h university administration f r o m d e c e n t r a l i z a l i o n to centralization has h e e n p e r c e i v e d differently hy the affectecl institutions a n d individuals aceorcling to their frames of reference. T h o s e i n v o l v e d in political activity a n d e v e n indoct "ir ation vvere the most u n h a p p y hecause of the alleged state control at the c::>st of a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m . T h o s e w h o taught few hours a w e e k a n d spent the rest of their times in m o o n l i g h t johs were d i s p l e a s e d . T h o s e w h o sıncerely anel canelidly helieved that university administration s h o u l d he cifferent f r o m that of a p u h l i c institution were in a state of anticipation ol further e v a l u a t i o n of preaspeetive implenaentation. Thcase w h o vvorked Lıll time a n d \vere too c o n s c i e n t o u s tea evaele their professicanal cluties vvere g l a d hecause of the legal constramts a n d p r o h a b l e justice. A n d there were eathergroups as w e l l w h o perhaps reacteel differently.
After 1980 militaıy intervention, a C o u n c i l of National S e c u r t y vvas c o m p o s c d of the commanelers of four forces u n d e r the C h i e f of G e n e r a l Staff. A Consultative A s s e m h l y was estahlished in O c t o h e r 1981 allegedly composeel of impartial persons a p p o i n t e d hy the C o u n c i l of N a t i o n a l Security. Nevertheless, a considerahle nıımher of them vvere on the eleetion lists of political parties tvvo years later a n d h e c a m e the nıemhers of the Grancl National A s s e m h l y after the 1983 eleetions. T h e recenı lavv of
1 ' Jıer e d u c a t i o n vvas a d o p l e d hy the C o u n c i l of National Security, 1 >ecause ıt might not have h e e n passeel through the A s s e m h l y , at least as it vva s.
D u r i n g militaıy administration, universities vvere a s k e d tea elahorate on a nevv legislative p r o p o s a l , a n d a m o n g other acaclemicians, the vvriter also p r o d u c e c l rvvo articies on the organizational a n a t o m y of anel i n n o v a t i v e strategies for the university (3, 4). But a reactionaıy lavv vvas alıeady p r e m e d i a t e d for the university vvhich vvas h e l d r e s p o n s i h l e for the student m o v e m e n t s hefore 1980. İn fact, these m o v e m e n t s w e r e essentially p r o v o k e c l hy political parties a n d their extensions. T h e article 7/1 c f the lavv states that " T h o s e w h o act against the objeetives, p r i n c i p l e s anel o r d e r envisagecl in this lavv shall be transferred to another institution of h g h e r e d u c a t i o n for reevaluation, or shall be dischargecl u p o n the request of the university president, or clirectly w i t h i n n o r m a l p r o c e d u r e " . T h i s svvorcl of D a m o c l e s över the h e a d of ıhe acaclemician has renclered ali o p ' i m i s t i c interpretations of a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m d u b i o u s .
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e l i m i , Y ı l : 1 . S a y ı : 1 . 1 5 a h a v
The Council of Higher Education
A p e r m e n a n t characteristic of the Cİİh has b e e n its c o m p o s i a o n anel r e c o m p o s i t i o n usu ally from the one bal]' oj 'political speetrum. T ı i s trend has generally refleeted itself in the a p p o i n t m e n t of a c a d e m i c administrators. A l t h o u g h at the initial term a few impaıtial car es were c o n s i d e r e d harmless, such was not the case later. After the 1983 eleetions a n d the reestablisment of civilian g o v c r n m e n t . this trend e x p a n d e d as the result of the eastern a n d somevvhat religious oriented fore;gn p o l i c y . T h e r e f o r e , any critical evaluation of the press, a c a d e m i c or p r o : e s s i o n a l cireles vvere reacted to through ideological role defense. O n e of the early indices of this e x p a n s i o n vvas the tactless d e c i s i o n of the C H E to permit female students to w e a r turbans (5), w h i c h aftei"warcls raased an h e a d a c h e e v e n for the governmet. T h e replacement of successful but impartial a c a d e m i c administrators, the refusal of administrative canclidates strongly c o m m i t t e d to Atatürk's p r e p o n d e r a n t p h i l o s o p h y vave b e e n a m o n g later indices.
T h e fact that every prolessıonai organization like the militaıy c a u n c i l , a bar, a meclical b o a r d ete. is c o m p o s e d of the m e m b e r s oi t le same p r o f e s s i o n vvas u n h e e d e d in the recent iaw; a n d as a result, 1 »ureaucrats have alvvays formeçl almost half of the m e m b e r s of the CFIE Besides their unfamiliarity with the present a n d d y n a m i c issues of higher e d u c a t i o n , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of a nostaljic look back to their college ti nes, the evaluation of academicians by those w h o d i d not pass throı gh s u c h stages either aclministratively or academicaily vvas the most unaccııstomed funetion ö f the C H E .
In most countries e d u c a t i o n a l administration has remainecl at tlıe amateur level f r o m kinclergarclen to university inelusive. As a result the pıactice of this k i n d of administration has b e e n d e e p l y influencecl by t le basic c o n c e p t s anel principles ot the lield in vvhich the e d u c a t i o n a l administrator is specialized. A n d this effect has b e e n deepest at the university level, because specialization ıs so.
F r o m the v e r y b e g i n i n g , the CFIE has sulfered from the lack ot balance in terms of primaıy ciisciplınes in the university. T h i s entailecl tl e a m u s i n g contrast that no professor of education vvas eleeted to the C o u n c i l of H i g h e r Education ııntil 1992. İt mıght have originateci partlv from the m i s c o n c e p t i o n that eveıy eıniversity professor is a specialist in e d u c a t i o n . In parentheses, tbe recently estahlished Turkish Academy of Sciences
refteets the same trend. S o m e of the meıuoers of the CITE w -iv f o r m e r a c a d e m i c car bureaucratic administrators ';mt the i'cieı l'rı > a-ie stili
II ğ i l i m Y <"> ne iı m i . Y ı l : I . S a y ı : 2 . Ha h a r
existecl. S o m e others perceivecl themselves " s u c h stuff as d r e a m s w ere macle of".
S o m e a c a d e m i c administrators suggest that the CI1E s h o u l d be maiır.ained as an o r g a n of c o o r d i n a t i o n \vhich is o n e of the phases of the administrative process. Therefore, to attribute this funetion to the C H E invites its partnership in the executive process, if it is \vhat they \vısf . First of ali, the n e e d for a c o o r d i n a t i v e extra organ in a system i m p l i e s the failure of subsystems to reali/.e this funetion. Seconclly. ö n c e c o o r d i n a t i o n is ovvnecl as an executive funetion. it oııghf to be fulfilled İT/ the interuniversity C o u n c i l \vhich ıs hu.sicaIIv c o m p o s e d of the executives ol the vvhole svstem. that is. ııniversitv presidents. plus university senators in advısory capacity. 11 the Inteıuniversılv C o u n c i l had been so c o n s c i c u s ol this responsibility as to staff itseli lechnically in the past. there v o u l d p e r h a p s have b e e n no need lor such an extra organ as the Cİ İF.
T h e president o l ıhe C N F , ihsan Doğramacı, a n internationally r c n o v n e d acaclemician, the louncler and long-ıimc president of M a e e i l e p e UniversitY. an inclehıtigable executive över 70. has b e e n recogni/.e I as an autoeratic leader. T h e r e t o r e . no g r o u p or individual o p p o s i t i o n has s u r v i v e d ın the C N F . Povver \vithoui opposiıion ıs neither infallible. nor enjoyable. T h e tvvo dilemnas ol leadership b e h a v i o r a re tirat eitl eı ıhe leader believes in his undisptıiabie suecess. or his ciose follo\vers m a k e him believe so. vvhich is m o r e detrimenial. for reasons of their o\v ı. T h e truth is usually d i s c o v c r c d a n d acceptecl at ıhe very enel.
T h e CI İf] has b e e n a matchless scapegoaf tor vvhalever has g o n e vvrong in universities, laecau.se il ceniralı/.ed the most trivial authoritics. vvith liıtle cliscretion leh to presicienis. a n d almost n o n e to deans. Consecıuentıy. the press, a c a d e m i c cireles, recently joinecl by ıhe Parliament a n d governırcnf represantatives declar. d the
Cl\\
:.
a free fire / o n e . First, an imporıant m e m b e r of the party in povver claimed thaı ıhe l.aw of'Hıaher E d u c a t i o n failecl to p r o v i d e raclıcal solııiıon.s lor p r o b l e m s . a n d ıhe result obtaiı i c c ı aı the e n d ol" fi ve years vvas meflicie'ncv and-laiiure ((i), .state Mmıster .Adnan K a h v e c i preparecl a d raf t lavv tor higher education \vith raclıcal c h a n g e s . T h e most acceptable part of the dıalr v,as a C l l f ! to be c o m p o s e d of a c a d e m i c i a n s only, a n d ıhe most (jııestionable part was the introdu;:tion of b o a r d of trustees fairly o p e n to furiher political infiltration (7). N e x l c ay President Doğramacı d e f e n d c d his C o u n c i l and (|ualıl'ied the chalt as a political c h o i c e (S).D u r i n g the elebates on 19<S,S budgel in ıhe Assemhly. the CI 1E w a.s severel criticizecl hy o p p o s i t i o n parties. bul clefended hy the M o t h e r l a n d Par y ın
U. jX i ' i m Y ö n e l i m i , Y ı l : 1 . S a y ı : 2 . 15 a h a r
povver (9), w h i c h o n c e m o r e revealed the political iclentity ot the C H E . Neverthele.ss, the Minister of National E d u c a t i o n , H a s a n C e l a l G ü z e l , stated that he agreed vvith most of the criticisms. He also clarTiecl hy saying that they did not intend to eliminate the C H E , but the c vvere mistakes to be corrected (10).
O n e c a n o n l y ask w h y the party in povver and the g o v e r n m e n t b e c a m e so s u d d e n y a n d critically interested in the C H E . Certainly serious hesıtations a n d eriteisms have been expressed by d e p e n d a b l e press a n d a c a d e m i c i a n s . First, the nevv lavv has alienated senior m e m b t r s \vho retired in significant n u m b e r s vvhile d i s c o u r a g i n g prospeetive o n e s . B e c a u s e the nevv lavv has elıminated tenııre, o n l y a few graduaıes vvith satisfactoıy recoıcls a p p l i e d for a c a d e m i vacancies (11). Seconcl, politically motivated b e h a v i o r o f s o m e a c a d e m i c administrators a p p o i n t e d b y o r i m p o s e d o n the C H E created anxiety a m o n g a c a d e m i c i a n s for v h i c h the CFİF vvas held responsibJe. T h i r d , the lack of long term p o l cy a n d p l a n n i n g resulted in arbitrary a n d sometimes contradictorv d e c i s i o n s in regulations a n d clecrees vvhich created c o n f u s i o n in practice. F o r instance, graduate regulations c h a n g e d ten rimes in lour years, a n d m o r e la' er (12).
T h e consec|uence vvas a n u m h e r of cases taken to a n d o v u m l e d bv administrative courts. Fourth, it vvas c l a i m e d that T u r k i s h universities have lagged b e h i n d industıy. because. their organizational strueture has failed to meet contemporaıy needs 013)- A r e p o n p r e p a r e d hy the State P l a n n i n g Department c l a i m e d no advancement in medical training since the f o u n d a t i o n of the CFİF C M ) . İbrahim C e y l a n , a vvell k n o w r M i r g e o n c l a i m e d that because ot recent laculties of m e d i c i n e o p e n e d v i t h o u t sufficient instructional staff and material and s o m e on political bc sis, the T u r k i s h m e d i c i n e has h e e n in a state of crıses ın the lası ten years ( I S ) . A l s o , a study on m e d i c a l training shovved that artilicial increase m student quotas affectecl this training negatively (.16).
T h e same reservations a n d anxiety vvere expressed in terms ol elenfistry training a n d the measure vvas p r o p o s e d as to close some colleges ıecently o p e n e d (17). S u c h criticisms gave g o o d g r o u n d s for the p a n v : . n d the g o v e r n m e n t in povver to c h a n g e the lavv. a n d p e r h a p s President Doğramacı. T h u s , the university vvas o h l i g e d to c h o o s e the least ol tvvo evils, betvveen the present a n d the prospeetive lavv. Neverthele.ss, in an o p i n i o n poü, university presidents expressed their hesitaiions vvılh respect to establishing of b o a r d of rrustses vvhich they c l a i m e d vvoukl politicize the university (1<S). T h e Kahveci dralr vvas crilicızed that it repeated the same inllexıble strueture lor ali universities. vvhereas a framevvork of b r o a d legal guidelines vvoulcl sııffice instead ot s u c h delails as h o w to evaluate student achievemenı ete. (19). A n o l h e " s c h o l a r
E ğ i t i m Y e") n e t i m i . Y ı l S a y ı : Z , B a h a r
c l a i m e d that b o a r d of trustees system for the T u r k i s h h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n Yvould create o n l y chaos (20).
A similar but smaller organ reestablisecl by the recent lavv is the Corır cil of S u p e r v i s i o n for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n . Five m e m b e r s of this o r g a n a re sel çeteci h y the C H E ; three from Court o f A p p e a l s , Court o f A c c o u n t s , a n d S u p r e m e Administrative Court; a n d tvvo by the Ministry of National E d u c a t i o n . T h e last tvvo vvere meant from the Ministerial cadre in o r d e r to e s u b l i s h c o o r d i n a t i o n betvveen higher e d u c a t i o n a n d other subsysteırs of e d u c a t i o n a l system, but this c o n n e e t i o n was later clisregarded a n d m i s u s e d by the eleetion of others outside the cadre. T h e C o u n c i l of S u p e r v i s i o n has b e e n ineffeetive since its founclation, a l t h o u g h the m e m b e r s a p p o i n t e d to this o r g a n have b e e n w o r t h y of their pesitions.
T h e ineffectiveness came as a result of not a p p l y i n g the universal process a n d not provicling evaluative r e p o n s to a c a d e m i c institutions a n d administrators. T h i s certainly gave the C H E a free hanel to relieve s o m e successful administrators, a n d to k e e p s o m e unsuccessful o n c e . Nevertheless, the \vriter identified a n d criticised this n e g a g e n c e repeatedly (21).
Academic Freedom
O n e of the most controversial ıssues in the university has certainy aeen a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m e v e n uncler ordinary conelitions. İt has e v o k e d mıare c o n t r o v e r s y in this transitional p e r i o d . T h e o p p o n e n t s of the ne\v lavv h a v e persistently held that this f r e e d o m vvas r e d u c e d if not entirely eliminatecl. Uncler the initial impact of the nevv lavv d i s c i o l i n a r y ınvestigations of the academicians vvho criticised the lavv o" its i m p l e m e n t a t i v e consec]tıences vvere c o n d u e t e d . S o m e a c a d e m i c administrators c o n d u e t e d or requested such investigations uncler ialse pretences. S o m e of s u c h recjue.srs vvere returned by the C H E , s o m e others vvere overrulecl by administrative courts, a n d s o m e e n d e d in p u n i s h m e n t ; but ali causecl psychologıcal incjuisition for a c a d e m i c i a n s . As time w e n t o n , b o t h the C H E a n d later administrators b e c a m e somevvhat tele ant;
p e r h a p s b e c a u s e increasıng criticisms by the press, political a n d a c a d e m i c cireles h a v e intimiclatecl them. President Doğramacı, usually as the o n e p r o p o n e n t of the lavv a n d its implementative frictions, c l a i m e d that :hey
did not cali to
a c c o u n t s . e v e n those vvho c o n d u e t e d researcho n
Manasın (22), as if no s u c h ' s t u d y c o u l d be m a d e in the university. On the c t h e r hand, his vice-presielent K e m a l K a r h a n stated that not canly Manasın butalso teocratic state order
s h o u l dbe instructecl, as if the latter is the
antithesis of the former (23). İt ought to he pointeel out that o t r e m e elisciplinaıy attitudes vvere shovvn hy rathera fevv a c a d e m i c i a n s fani tieally
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e t i m i , Y ı l : 1 , S a y ı : 2 , B a h a r
committecl to a ce/tain political p h i l o s o p h y , although s o m e of t h e m ovvnecl contrary c o m m i t m e n t s before the militaıy intervention anel the last lavv.
A p u b l i c o p i n i o n poll c o n d u e t e d by the Milliyet nevvspaper shovvecl that
% 73 of those c o n s u l t e d believed that universities d i d not have a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m (24). D u e to the lack of this freedom, universities vvhich u s e d to think a n d react before the lavv have b e e n silent at the present (25).
T h e r e f o r e , vvhile political interdicts put by militaıy administration have slackenecl, a c a d e m i c ones vvere stili in effect (26). T h e p r e s i d e n of the T e c h n i c a l University in İstanbul, K e m a l Kafalı, vvrote that a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m is the inclispensable element for a healthy g e n e r a t i o n of science a n d t e c h n o l o g y (27). Events tollovving the publication of the instant artic;le m a y cıanstitute a d e p e n d a b l e eri teri can caf a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m in T u r k i s h universities.
Administrative and Academic Succession
A revievv of university presidents initially a p p o i n t e d by the C H E ar der the present lavv shovvs that about o n e third c a m e from m e d i c a l scıer.ce, the specialty caf tlae president, a n d o n e fifth from Hacettepe University. his former university. S o m e university presidents vvere in position before the lavv a n d maintained previous organizational status as a c a d e m i c cireles predictecl they vvoulcl. but in some universities there vvas a rapid t u r n o v e r of presidents vvithin six vears vvhich provecl that ali a p p o i n t m e n ' s vvere not juclicious after ali. T h e mobility in case of deans vvas e v e n higher vvithout m u c h regarel to administrative success car c o m p . t e n c e . Inexplicably, of 22 facukies caf e d u c a t i o n , only tvvo h a d ıleans as professors caf e d u c a t i o n a p p o i n t e d by the C H E tıntil 1988 (28). T h e elassification a n d distrubition ot a c a d e m i c cadres entailecl various H c t i o n s w h i c h vvere enumeratecl in eletail a n d cjualified as ımplementations not b e c o m i n g to contemporaıy age (29). Universities in eleveloped c c u n f r i c s reflect a free climate a n d this is the university reform vvhich o u r e >lleagues l o n g f o r ( 3 0 ) .
l i o t h by the lavv anel the decrees caf the C H E . there have b e e r m a n y fluetuaticans in case of a c a d e m i c p r o m o t i o n s . İn o r d e r tea incaease the n u m b e r caf instructional staff in the institutions caf lıigher e d u c a t i o n annexecl tea universities. teachers vvho vvearked at least five years in these instituticans vvere granted doctoral degrees ııpon the recommenılation of jury a n d the a p p r o v a l of the university senate vvithout the recjtıiıa ments ol doctoral courses or thesi.s (31 ). Hut five montlıs later, this ele r e e vvas m o d i f i e d a n d introducecl the obligation to vvrite a doctoral th -sı-. (32), D u r i n g tlae five months betvveen tvvo decrees. s o m e teacher.- vvere c l a i m e d to receive doctoral degrees in reftırn (af almost no a c a d e m i c
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e l i m i , Y ı l : I , S a y ı : 1 , B a h a r
procluctivity, vvhile there vvere researeh assistants vvho spent years af loil before attaining the sanıe degree.
İn case of a c a d e m i c p r o m o t i o n , the most controversial issnes have b e e n those of assistant professors and full professors. By the nevv lavv, a n y researeh assistant vvho receıved a doctoral degree had to serve three years in his university in order to a p p l y lor assistant professorship. but coı İd do so in another universitv vvithout time limit. A l t h o u g h the a i m vvas to p r o m o t e applications to universities in the c o u n t r y s i d e , projesyioııal dcL>elo[.)ineııt ıi'c/s basud on ı>eoı>ırıpby, vvhile linancial incentives a n d subsiclized l o d g i n g lacılifies vvoulcl have seıved s u c h a purpose fetter.
Nevertheless. s o m e t i m e later this time limit vvas omitted by the CI Ih, but not the inecjualities it e n g e n d e r e d in the past s u c h as r e c o g n i z i n g prioritics lor those vvho vvent and s e ı v e d in the countryside.
in case of p r o m o t i o n to associate professorship. vvhile a the sis vvas recjiıired a n d evaluafed lav an Interuniversity jury before, the nav lavv r e p l a c e d this rec]uirement vvıth the evaluation of ali the p u b l i c a l i o n . - of a candidate vvhich renclered evaluation dilticult. By a recent decree of the C H E , to vvait four years to a p p l y tor associate professorship vvas nt longer d e m a n d e c l , but five vear duration stili remamecl in effect :'oı full professorship. İlere lied another contradielory policy of a c a c e m ı c p r o m o t i o n . İf a certain duration is indispensable for a c a c e m ı c d e v e l o p m e n t , it s h o u l d be valicl for ali aehelons.
E o r p r o m o t i o n tea full professorship, so numerotıs vvere the decisions a n d p r o c e d u r e s acloptecl that eventually ten kinels of full professcaı s vvere ınvented (33) ( 3/ı ) . T h e confusican reached its climax vvhen Pı es dent Doğramacı vvas c l a i m e d to have statecl that an associate professor of a g n c u l t u r e ccaulel as vvell be a full professor of history (35). O n e caf the most debatable kinels vvas to c o n l e r this title, instead of h o n o r a r y cloctorate, to vvell-knovvn, car not so, musicians a n d artists. A c c o r d i n g to informal resources, 67 full professors, 187 associate professors. a ne 191 assistant professors accjuirecl these a c a d e m i c degrees. S o m e caf t h e m vvere distinguished instruetears in their fields, but this has not b e e n the conventieanal w a y to a c a d e m i c p r o m o t i o n in T u r k i s h universities. Besıcles it renclered the statistıcal elata can the suhject caf ıncreases in instructional staff clubious. A n o t h e r kinci vvas cjualifiecl as " H u l l e c i Professcaı" vvho vvas f a v o u r a b l y p r o m o t e d in another metropolitan university besides his ovvn, instead of serving in the countryside*.
Ehille \va.s a marital transfer in the Iskımic kı\v by vvlıiclı llıe \vile- w l ı o vvas d i v o r eti lıy her lıu.sbancl was lempoıarily m a n i e c l lo anoılıer so ılıai liıe lömıeıTııı.shancI c o u t I nıarry her a g a i n . But not ın ali ca.ses ıhe wıle or ıhe Mic-eessıve lıu.sbancl l ö j l o v eti the prephınııed transaction.
E ğ i t i m Y (") n e t i m i . Y ı l : 1 . S a y ı : 1 , 1 5 a h a r
T h e n e w lavv inrrodııeecl a nevv c o m m o d i t y n a m e d "instructiona: element"
into the a c a d e m i c market. T h u s , a n y o n e such as a researeh assistant, specialist, transiator, or planner acquired a c a d e m i c rank as s o o n as a p p o i n t e d , a l t h o u g h he coulel not funetion a c c o r d i n g l y . T h i s i n c o g n i t o vvas later u s e d to manıpulate statistics vvhich a p p e a r e d in the data p r o v i d e d by local educational sources, in the so-called W o r l d B a n k report, in vvhich student-ınstructor ratio in T u r k i s h higher e d u c a t i o n vvas stated as 1 to İS, and even lovver in medical schools (36).
İn spite of lovvered standards and artifıcial measures to increase the n u m b e r of a c a d e m i c staff, the gap created by the recent lavv vvas r o t easy to ciose. A b o u t
2000
full and associate professors a re c l a i m e d to h a v e partecl from the university for various reasons, vvhile ten m o r e universities vvere o p e n e d and student popuiatıon rose to half a m i l l i o n . İn nıetropolitan universities. not only student instructor ralios, bı.ıt also vv eekly teaching hours vvent b e y o n d the limits of efiicıency (37). S o m e of those vvhich contributed to nevv universities in the past had to aorrcavv a c a d e m i c h e l p trom them, or from bureaucracy. A university in A n k a r a o p e n e d a doctoral p r o g r a m in educational administration vvith ne full or associate professor in this field on its staff, although s u c h progr.mas vvere subject to the a p p r o v a l of the Cİ 1E.Student Achievement and Organizational Climate
By the nevv lavv. a student vvho failed to make a preestablishec grade average at the e n d of midterm exams vvas not entitled to take vasa, the ılght of final e x a m . T h i s has mcreasecl the d r o p - o u t rate in universities, created pressures on political organs, a n d eventually three a c a d e m i c amnesties vvere passed by the Parliament iıa the years of 1983, 84, 86, in o r d e r to give m o r e chances to d r o p - o u t s anel prospeetive c>nes. But c o n c e s s i o n is like a eloor ajar, anel naturally m o r e amnesties vvere rc:quired by students anel their associations later ın 1988, 1991, 1992 a n d 1993 (38).
It is h a r d to i m a g i n e any educational or legislative povver vvhich intervenes sea frequently vvith student evaluation. But the M n i s t e r of National E d u c a t i o n , H a s a n Celal Güzel, as a politician stated that 60000 f students equaleel 200000 votes; although amnesty s h o u l d not be
p e r c e i v e d that w a y . T h e r e f o r e . he vvas not againt amnesty (39). ıh us, the d o m i n a n t factor in the solution of a crisıs ın h i g h e r educaLİcn vvas officially cleclared.
\ On the other h a n d , students c o m p l a i n e d about the o p p r e s s i v e climate in universities, anel askecl for iaaeare f r e e d o m of thought anel s p e e c h . T h e y o r g a n i z e d protest w a l k s from İstanbul a n d İzmir to A n k a r a e v e n vvith
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e t i m i Y ı l : 1 , S a y ı : 2 , l i a l ı a r
s o m e parent.s a c c o m p a n y i n g them (40). S o m e g o v e r n m e n t a n d a c a d e m i c circles c l a i m e d political motives h e h i n d s u c h m o v e m e n t s . E v e n the former M i n i s t e r of National E d u c a t i o n , M e t i n Emiroğlu, stated that they hacl s e e n this m o v i e m a n y times (41). But there vvere m o r e things on the s c r e e n " t h a n d r e a m e d o f h y his ovvn p h i l o s o p h y " . A l t h o u g h s o m e a c a d e m i c i a n s vvere asainst s u c h tolerance vvhich vvoulcl do g o o : i to n o h o d y i n c l u d i n g students (42), others h e l d that the e d u c a t i o n p r o v i d e d for the y o u t h has h e e n insuffıcient (43).
W h i l e s o m e political motives a n d e v e n agitators might have h e e n o p e r a t e d h e h i n d s u c h m o v e m e n t , it s h o u l d not he o v e r l o o k e d that, like e v e r y military intervention, the 1980 era also intimidated the intelligentsia anel the university. B o t h a c a d e m i c i a n s anel students have mainta n e d reservations to v o i c e e v e n their constitutional rights, particularly hecause of possihle d e n u n c i a t i o n anel subsequent disciplinary measures. F o r instance, clisciplinaıy investıgations vvere c o n d u e t e d on s o m e students, in E g e a n d D o k u z Eylül Universities in İzmir, hecause they h a d sent telegrams to the Minister of Interior c o m p l a i n i n g about poliçe press.ıres (44). By the lavv, s o m e presidents diel not permit student a s s o c i a t i o r s or meetings, because o n e of them resulteel in elistruetive action <-r ). But s o m e professors a n d presidents c l a i m e d that lack of elialogue bervveen a c a d e m i c administrators anel students causeel s u c h undesirable o u t e o m e s (46). On the other h a n d , in recently estabJiseel private B i l k e n t university, vvhich is b e i n g governeel hy s o m e a c a d e m i c administrators of the present system, students enjoyeel full-lleshecl elemocracy(47).
İn the last quarter of 1985, Şahin A l p a y , former researeh assistant in the Faculty of E d u c a t i o n , A n k a r a University, collected the reactions abe ut the C H E caf m a n y vvelhknovvn academicians. l e a d i n g politicians, F a r n e r university presidents uncler the title of " T h e C H E File" in the C u m h u r i y e t nevvspaper. A m o n g the main topic:s vvere the lack of university c o n c e o t anel a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m (a8). despotic administration a n d excessive diseipline (49), standarelized university a n d the C H E ministry (50). clecreasııag instructional quality (51), an inventoıy of a c a d e m i c i a n s vvho left oı vvere obligecl to leave the university (52), difference in a c a d e m i c statistics ol tlae State P l a n n i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d the C H E (53), the C H E as a h i n d r a n c e to e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t (5a). But the C H E has ne ver been sensetive t<) s açla evaluations of the a c a d e m i c c o m m u n i t y car the press.
A few university presidents like those of the T e c h n i c a l University in İstanbul, the Atatürk University in E r z u r u m , a n d the M i d d l e East T e c h n i c a l University in Ankara s p o k e cvaluatively about the C H E and the lack of scientific proeluetivity m uıaıversities. but they vvere replaced o:a the nearest o c c a s i o n a n d in due form (55. 56, 57).
E ğ i t i m Y <"> n e t i m i , Y ı l : 1 , S a y ı : 2 . B a h a r
T h e lack of sufficient positions for a c a d e m i c p r o m o t i o n s created rivalry a n d e v e n enmity a m o n g academicians w h o h a d vvorked togeıher anel b e e n friends for years. This elearth of a c a d e m i c positions has o e e n m o r e a n d mcare destrtıctive to the organizational climate of T u r k i s h universities as time has passed. T h e authoritics c o n c e r n e d s h o u l d knovv or r e m e m b e r that h u m a n systems funetion by motivation a n d morale.
O n e of the aims of e d u c a t i o n is to ec|uip an inelividual vvith necessary c i v i l i z e d c o u r a g e to d a i m his constitutional rights as a citizen, oiheiwi.se he vvoulel fail to behave so in case of any national, a n d paıticularly international crisis. A timid y o u t h \vill not be able tea protect the T u r k i s h i n d e p e n d e n c e anel the R e p u b l i c in accorelance vvith Atatürk's k^gacy. N o r vvill a timid instructor be able to eeltıcate generations with free ıhought, t re e c o n s c i e n c e . anel ti'ee kno\vledge as reepıesteel by Atatürk. A m o n g others, this has b e e n the most vital hanelicap created by the j x t r e m e interpretaticans, anel implementations of tlae ne\v legislation ir higher e d u c a t i o n , anel the T u r k i s h university vvas elescıabeel in a painfu siate by a w e l l - k n o w n vvriter (58i.
Prelim inary Conclu s i o n s
T h e reestablisheel C H E vvhich b e g a n funetioning at the b e g i n n i n g of 1982 is c l a i m e d to have spent great effort in o r d e r tea attaın the three goals mentkaneci belovv:
1 - Tea unıversalize higher e d u c a t i o n in order to p r o v i d e m o r e capp artunity of e d u c a t i o n for the yeauth,
2 - To take such measures as tea train instructional staff of h i g h quality anel sufficient quantity.
3 - To raise the quality caf education anel to p r o v i d e incentives for researeh sea as to i m p r o v e its cjuality anel eıuantity,
İn the vvhite b o o k l e t p u b l i s h e d by the C H E , s o m e statistical data a n d illustrations vvere presented in o r d e r to prcave the aelvancements ır h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n u n d e r the nevv lavv a n d the nevv administration (59) Beath the a i m a n d the limit of this articie do not unfortunately permit s u m m a r i z i n g the vvhole content caf the booklet. First, no m e t h o d has yet b e e n ir venteel tea increase quantıty anel quality sinıultanously in e d u c a t i o n . Secc'rad, there have b e e n botla ccantraclictory anel quantitative claims. A l t h o u g h schoealing in higher e d u c a t i o n vvas not mentieaned in the booklet, a deoenelable statistician vvrote that in the a c a d e m i c year of 1986-87, it vvas o n l y % 9
(60).
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e t i m i . Y ı l : 1 . S a y ı : I , 1 5 a h a r
İt vvas c l a i m e d that the C H F . scattered T u r k i s h m e n of s c i e n c e över five continents. D u r i n g its administration, 4700 academicians vvere pu.shed out of universities. A m o n g these, 1200 full professors resigned or failec to obtain an extension of a p p o i n t m e n t from their presidents, 77 vvere d i s c h a r g e d from universities by the martial lavv a n d s o m e of these u p o n the hidclen requests of their ovvn superiors. A b o u t 3000 i n s t r u c u c n a l elements dicl not either have an extension of service, or their cadres vvere s u p p r e s s e d ( 6 l ) . In the a c a d e m i c year of 1986-87, in 22 facultıes of e d u c a t i o n , out of 1718 m e m b e r s of the teaching staff; o n l y % 3 vvere full professors, % 6 associate professors, and % 9 assistant professors (62 >.' "he gap vvas officially c o n f i r m e d by the head of the Social P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t to the effect that in 1989 the d e m a n d for instructional staff vvas p r e d i c t e d as 2400, vvhile no p r e d i c t i o n about s u p p l y c o u l d be nia.de by the C H E (63).
As s o o n as 22 nevv facultıes of e d u c a t i o n vvere established in İS82.
traditional a n d vvell statted universites like A n k a r a a n d H a c e t t e p e suggested projects to the C H E to train researeh assıstants of the nevv o a e s as prospeetive instructional staff. but the C H E disregarded s u c h contributions tor reasons ol its ovvn. Years later, these vvere sent for graduate study to the States u n d e r costly W o r l d Bank projects staffed by spoils system, vvhile full professors ol e d u c a t i o n in traditional u n i v e r s i ses h a d already b e e n trained in the best universities of that c o u n t r y thıough A I D anel Fulbright seholarships.
T h e deficieney in instructional staff caused tremenelous increase in vveekly t e a c h i n g hours up to 25 or 30 in s o m e cases vvhich h a v e h i n d e r e d scientific researeh a n d a c a d e m i c proeluetivity. T h i s vvas illustrated in elecreasing percentages of researeh anel p u b l i c a t i o n funds out of the total budget of universities betvveen 1983-1986 years (64). An extremly central administration of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n elelayed the solutions of the issues at this a e h e l o n . T h e rapidly m u l t i p l y i n g anel sometimes contıadıctary regulations, the frequent changes in them, s u c h as those in terms of graduate instruction leel to significant c o n f u s i o n a n d mistakes in hig ıer e d u c a t i o n . F o r instance, betvveen 1981-85, 52 changes took place in regulations, a n d graduate regulations r a n k e d First vvith 10 modifications (65). T h e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e of its extensive authorities över universities a n d faculties, to limit the authority of the CFIE has b e e n ımperative (66).
T h e p r e v i o u s "Lavv of Universities" numberecl 1750, a n d the nevv "Lavv of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n " numberecl 2547 a re at the rvvo ends of a continiunı. T h e f o r m e r hinclerecl the lunctıoning of higher e d u c a t i o n as a system a n d :be a c a d e m i c aclministrator vvho d i d not favor this c o n c e p t c o u l d facilitatr this
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e t i m i . Y ı l 1 , S a y ı : 2 , H a l ı a r
hinclrance. A l t h o u g h the recent lavv placecl higher eclucatior vvithin a system strueture, it concentratecl most authority in the system centre, renclering universities anel kıculties ineffeetive. T h e former obligecl the aclministrator to be sensetive to the aclministerecl, the latter inereasecl the sensetivity of the aclministrator to his superiors. T h e roles a n d status of a c a d e m i c i a n s in the former vvere vvell defineci a n d seıtled, but e x c e e d i n g l y clifferentiateci in the latter (67).
İt s h o u l d be ovvned that the C H E , by universalizing h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n in the country renclered a valuable service. But s o m e academıci.ıns stili prefered cjuality and they did not believe that incerasing n u m b e r of instructional staff and students necessarily i m p l y efficiency in administration a n d researeh (68). T h e ciaim of inereasing quantity anel c]uality simultaneously has alvvays b e e n o p e n to c]uestion.
O n e of the elepenelable d o c u m e n t s for sectorial evaluations is the perioclic five year d e v e l o p m e n t plan and a n n u a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o g n . m s of the State P l a n n i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n ( D P T ) . Six years after the establishment of the C H E , the 1988 p r o g r a m of the Eifth Five Y e a r D e v e l o p m e n t Plan evaluates the sıtuation in higher e d u c a t i o n as follovvs (69):
1. Student p o p u l a t i o n inereasecl 7.2 percent anel s e h o o l i n g ıp to 11.2 percent o v e r r e a c h i n g the targets envisaged in the PEYDİ3. On the other h a n d , before a master plan of higher e d u c a t i o n has b e e n a c c o ı r o l i s h e d , the n u m b e r caf universities inereasecl up to 28 vvith 23 nevv faculties anel 13 v o c a t i o n a l h i g h e r schools recently openecl a n d attachecl to these universities.
2. T h e n u m b e r of instructional staff fell short of F E Y D P targets, b e c a u s e the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of instructional curricula has b e e n ineffeetive a n d the status of a c a d e m i c staff has c o n t i n u e d to be unattractive.
3. T h e legalizecl c o m p u l s o r y transfer of associate professors t;:> other universities, particulaıty to those in the country, to be p r o m o ı e d to full p r o f e s s o r s h i p has vveakenecl the fully eleveloped m e t r o p o l i t i a n universities.
4. T h e pyramiclal elistribution of a c a d e m i c positions d i s c o u r a g e s nevv b r a i n povver to join universities particularly f r o m abroacl.
5. T h e fact that the salaries, extra elass a n d copyvvright payırents of instıaıcticanal staff have c o n t i n u e d to be unbalancecl vvith the services p r o v i d e d by t h e m has clecreased the elemanel on a c a d e m i c professıon.
6. B e c a u s e of job insecurıty for researeh assistants, fevv a p p l i c a t i o n s a re b e i n g macle for the vacancies publishecl. İn acleiition to the v v e a k e n i n g
E ğ i t i m Y ö n e t i m i . Y ı l : 1 , S a y ı : 1 , B a h a r
y o u n g e r caclres, vvith the retirement of full professors, the total instructional staff is expectecl to fail short of the plan targets within the next five years.
7. A l t h o u g h professors from developecl universities take trips to teach in n e w ones, hecause such instruction is c o n d u e t e d iti b l o c k hours t l r o m tvvo to four) w e e k s c o m h i n e d . the result obtainecl s h o u l d nc>t he c o n s i d e r e d procluctive. Besides, particularly in nevv universities, instruction hy researeh assistants lovvers the qııality of e d u c a t i o n .
S. B e c a u s e the C H E has not stili a d o p t e d the universal criteria of c octoral p r o g r a m s , any universitv can initiate such programs. As a result, aresent resources p l a n n e d to raise the (|tıality of scientific researeh h a v e not b e e n allocated to w e l l developecl departments a n d institutes envisagccl as centers ofattraction.
İt s h o u l d he noticecl that mos! o/'lbe cıbove clraırbacks repeat ibeıns'Jİves in case of Ihe 2;\ ııniuersities es/ahlisbecl in 1992. Lavvs do not live tmless they a re animatecl hy administrators. T h i s verity has h e e n o h s e r v e d i ı the different organizational elimates of T u r k i s h universities. T h e president of the C H E , Ilışan Doğramacı, sincerely h e l i e v e d in university reform a n d vvifhstoocl ali criticisms. s o m e ot them tınconventional a n d even unfair (70). Beıng a vvealthy m a n . he c o u l d h a v e lecl a m o r e enjoyahle life ir o n e of his lıouses a h r o a d . On the other hanel, lıe either dicl not prefer or t. iled to f o r m an interdlsciplinary and i n d e p e n d e d mindecl a c a d e m i c statf. M o s t m e m b e r s ot the C f l E vvere retired a c a d e m i c i a n s a n d bureaucrats vvho vvould rather maintain positions than oppcase the leader. T h i s hane icap vvas taken into consicleration in the d raf t lavv p r e p a r e d by a State Minister, A d n a n K a h v e c i , a n d aetive service vvas envisaged a condıtion for m e m b e r s h i p in the C H E (7J ). Occa.sionally, a fevv a c a d e m i c i a n s stacaj in defense of the nevv lavv and the C H E ; mo.stly a p p o i n t e d by it, anc again mostly orally in s y m p o s i u m s or panels.
Issııes and Tretıds
T h e critical evaluations elocumented in this articie do not i m p l y tiıe ck nial of the services renclered and the contributions macle. Neverthelc ss, by elint of the uncjuestionable support of the Heacl of State, K e n a n E v r e n , vast legal a n d administrative authorities, a n d favorable resources devcteıl to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n s o m e a d v a n c e m e n t s h o u l d ceıtainly have b e e n macle.
T h i s e v a l u a t i o n