T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI ANABİLİM DALI
REFLECTION OF CULTURE IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION: TRANSLATABILITY & UNTRANSLATABILITY IN SUBTITLING
Teslime BAGCI
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
Danışman
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
During my studies on this thesis I was so anxious about accomplishing it on time. I had been watching lots of movies, commercials and all the audiovisual documents that would help me to decide the next step for each part. While watching all these videos, I realized that all the things in the world are for people and we are the protagonist of our own scenarios but what make our scenario meaningful is the other characters that breathe the same air with us. Of course, some characters are antagonist and some others are friends. In fact, we are all human beings and we have lots of things in common. We smile when we are happy and we cry when we are sad and this decides the type of our scenario; if we are sad, life becomes a drama in our scenario, if we are afraid, it is suspense. If we are angry, it is action and when we look at mirror, it turns into a horror sometimes. Now, I am looking at my study and I am smiling because all my worries flow away by the help of the ones who supported me during this long thesis process.
I am glad to take the opportunity to thank all the people in my life for their support during my studies. First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Assist. Prof. Dr. Yagmur Kucukbezirci, for his continual support and advice throughout this work. Also, I would like to thank Arzu Kucukbezirci for her mothering and guiding. I hope that I could be as lovely, helpful and understanding as them, both. I am also very grateful to Prof. Dr. Yilmaz Koc, Prof. Dr. Iskender Yildirim, Assist. Prof. Dr. Kubilay K. Bastas, Prof. Dr. Cemil Sungur, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Diken, Prof. Dr. Raif Parlakkaya. Prof. Dr. Basar Cander, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sadik Girisgin and Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ergin for their encouraging whenever I feel in dilemma.
I am extremely grateful to Ahmet Gokgol and Caroline Martin for their support, encouragement and humour during the time when I really needed it most.
Finally, I would like to express my love and appreciation to my family, colleagues and students for their patience.
OZET
Bu calismada “Görsel-işitsel Çevirilerde Kültür Yansıması: Altyazılarda Çevrilebilirlik ve Çevrilemezlik” konusu islenmistir.
Birinci bölümde çevirinin tanımı yapilmakta, ceviri ve dil arasindaki iliskiden, cevirinin tarihinden ve cesitlerinden bahsedilmektedir. Ceviri insanlik tarihinin ilerlemesinde, farkli kulturlere sahip insanlarin kendilerine ozgu degerlerini birbirlerine anlatmalarinda ve anlasmazliklarin giderilmesinde cok onemli bir adimdir. Elbette ki cevirinin onemini ve isleyisini cok iyi anlayabilmek icin oncelikle dil nedir ve nasil ortaya cikmistir gibi sorularin cevaplanmasi gerekmektedir.
Ikinci bolumde kultur nedir sorusu cevaplanmaya calisilmistir. Kulturun dille ve ceviri ile iliskilerinden bahsedilmis, tarih, gelenek gorenek ve kultur farklarindan ortaya cikan cevrilebilirlik ve cevrilemezlik konulari islenmistir. Ozellikle cevrilemezlik konusunda kulturel farklardan dolayi cevrilemeyen kelimeler, ifadeler, deyimler, siirler ve akrabalik iliskileri uzerinde durulmustur.
Ucuncu bolumde gorsel-isitsel ceviri uzerinde durulmus, gorsel-isitsel cevirinin tarihi ve cesitleri anlatilmistir. Gorsel-isitsel ceviriler dublaj, dis ses ve altyazi olmak uzere uc farkli teknik kullanilarak yapilmaktadir. Bu cesitlerden ozellikle altyazi uzerinde durulmustur.
Dorduncu bolumde altyazilarda cevrilebilirlik cevrilemezlik konulari aktarilmaya calisilmistir. Cevrilebilirlik ve cevrilemezligin tanimlari yapilarak altyazilarda bunlarin sebepleri uzerinde durulmustur.
Besinci bolumde reklam filmlerinin tarihi ve tanimindan bahsedilmis reklam filmi altyazilarinda cevrilebilirlik cevrilemezlik konusu kulturel farklar goz onunde bulundurularak aciklanmistir. Ayrica, ornek olarak secilen Cola Turka reklami uzerinde konuyla ilgili bir calisma yapilmistir.
Altinci bolumde filmin tanimi ve film endustrisinin tarihini anlatilmis film altyazilarinda cevrilebilirlik cevrilemezlik konusu, Babam ve Oglum filmi altyazilarinda ele alinmistir.
Cevirilerde dil ve kultur farkliliklari ic icedir. Bu calismanin esas amaci gecmisi eskiye dayanmadigi halde hizla ilerlemekte olan gorsel-isitsel cevirinin altyazi dalinda cevrilebilirlik ve cevrilemezlik konularinin kultur farkliliklari goz onunde bulundurularak aciklanmasidir.
ABSTRACT
The subject of this study is ‘Reflection of Culture in Audiovisual Translation: Translatability and Untranslatability in Subtitling’.
In the first part of the thesis, the definition of translation and its relation with culture is mentioned. These two terms can not be thought separately as the translation arose as a need to understand different cultures through languages.
In the second part, the term culture is defined. Its relation with languageand its relation with culture are mentoned and translatability and untranslatability are explained through culture. Especially, the term untranslatability is studied under the light of untranslatable words, idioms, kinship and poems which reflect the culture.
In the third part, audiovisual translation is studied. Its definition, history and types are given. As a new method, it has three types; dubbing, voiceover and subtitling. In this study, the main focus is on subtitling.
In the fourth part, translatability and untranslatability in subtitling are defined and their reasons in subtitling are given.
In the fifth part, commercials, their definition and history are explained. Also, tranlatability and untranslatability subjects are analyzed through one of Cola Turka advertisements.
In the sixth part, the definition and history of film industry is given and the subjects, translatabile and untranslatable expressions are identified through a Turkish movie, My Father and My Son.
The differences between language and culture are interrelated in translation works. The main purpose of this study is to analyze translatability and untranslatability in subtitling considering the cultural differences in order to give cultural elements.
FOREWORD
Language, culture and translation are three different terms that can not be thought separately. When we think about the existence of these concepts, we will see that all has a place in humanlife since ancient times. Especially, language has always been a need for human in communication and interaction of people not only in the same societies also different ones, too.
If language is considered as the communication bridge of societies, translation is a bridge between these societies. What makes translation really important is its contribution to societies. One could never understand and learn about differences, if there was no translation. It has an important place in human history. Even if translation is thought to be dating back the first literary translations, it is possible to talk about existence of it even earlier.
There are many types of translation and translation methods. It should never be considered only about written texts. It has written, verbal and at the same time audiovisual versions. In all these three, audiovisual one is the newest. It is history is not as old as the other ones. Its existence can be thought with the emergence of cinema thanks to technology.
Audiovisual translation, because of its diversity in terms of being both audial and visual, has three methods; dubbing, voice-over and subtitling. In our country, the mostly used one is subtitling, translation of scripts on screen, but dubbing also used for most of the movies in English, French and German. Voice-over is generally thought with the documentaries that while we hear the speaker giving information in a foreign language, a smilutane translation is heard. The reason of listening both the speaker and translator may be the content and intensiveness of information given because there is a limitation of time and words in subtitling and also in dubbing.
In this study, the history of translation, different translation types, the relation of translation, language and culture will be studied also the terms translatability and untranslatability will be focused on but especially subtitling as a type of audiovisual translation will be analyzed in terms of translatability and untranslatability.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BILIMSEL ETIK SAYFASI ... II YÜKSEK LISANS TEZI KABUL FORMU ... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... IV OZET ... V ABSTRACT ... VI
CHAPTER I ... 1
TRANSLATION ... 1
1.1.THE RELATION BETWEEN TRANSLATION AND LANGUAGE ... 1
1.2.THE HISTORY OF TRANSLATION ... 4
1.3.TYPES OF TRANSLATION ... 7
CHAPTER II ... 9
CULTURE ... 9
2.1. DEFINITION OF CULTURE ... 9
2.2.THE RELATION OF CULTURE AND LANGUAGE ... 10
2.3.THE RELATION OF CULTURE AND TRANSLATION ... 11
2.3.1. Translatability ... 14
2.3.2. Untranslatability ... 15
2.3.2.1. Untranslatability in Daily Expressions ... 19
2.3.2.2. Untranslatability in Kinship ... 22
2.3.2.3. Untranslatability in Idioms and Proverbs ... 24
2.3.2.4. Untranslatability in Poems and Songs ... 25
CHAPTER III ... 27
AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION ... 27
3.1. THE HISTORY OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION ... 27
3.2.TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION ... 28
3.2.1.1. Lip-synchronized dubbing ... 29
3.2.2.Voice over ... 29
3.2.3. Subtitling ... 30
3.2.3.1. Some Avoidances about Subtitles ... 32
CHAPTER IV ... 33
TRANSLATABILITY AND UNTRANSLATABILITY IN SUBTITLING ... 33
4.1.TRANSLATABILITY AND UNTRANSLATABILITY IN SUBTITLING ... 33
4.1.1. Translatability ... 33
4.1.2. Untranslatability ... 34
CHAPTER V ... 36
COMMERCIALS... 36
5.1.DEFINITION AND HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL ... 36
5.2. TRANSLATABILITY AND UNTRANSLATABILITY IN COMMERCIAL SUBTITLES ... 37
CHAPTER VI ... 42
FILMS ... 42
6.1.THE DEFINITION OF FILM AND HISTORY OF FILM INDUSTRY ... 42
6.2.TRANSLATABILITY AND UNTRANSLATABILITY IN SUBTITLING OF FILMS ... 44
CONCLUSION ... 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 81
APPENDIX ... 83
CHAPTER I
TRANSLATION
1.1.The Relation Between Translation and Language
“Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are fixed, but the manner in which the principles of generation are used is free and infinitely varied.”
Noam Chomsky
Translation and language can be considered as interrelated terms that works together in cultural transfer. In order to comprehend the importance of these both, first of all, we should know their definitions. There are many experts studying on translation and each of them has their own idea about the definition of translation.
Catford (1965) defines translation as the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). The use of “textual material” is to underly the fact that is in normal condition, not all of the SL text is translated into the TL equivalents. For example, when we translate “what is your name?” into Turkish, “senin adın ne?”, according to Catford, we are replacing the material of SL (English) grammar and lexis by the equivalent of TL, grammar and lexis. But the graphological form of its translation into TL is not the equivalent of the SL (English) form.
Larson (1984) states that translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation and cultural context of the source language, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, then reconstructing the same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context”.
Nida and Taber (1974) state that translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Newmark (1984) says translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.
As it is seen in the definitions of translation, the word “language” is always used while defining the term. As the language is one of the most important part of translation, there are
many linguists and translators studying on languages in terms of many different aspects of linguistics; phonology, phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, stylistics, historical, social, cultural, psychological, neurological, translational and so on.
To be precise, there are many experts who express opinions about the definition of language.
Sapir (1921) definies the language as a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. In this definition, language is seen as a tool for communication.
According to Owen (2006), language can be defined as socially shared combinations of symbols and rule governed. Those combinations of symbols (language can be defined as a socially acceptable code or conventional system for delivering concepts through the use of symbols and combinations of the desired symbols are governed by the provisions.
Weiten (2007) says that language consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages.
Another linguist, Goldstein (2007) definies the language similar to the view of Saphir, according to him, language as a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences."
There are many other different types of definition of language. What is common in all these definitions is its being a system which is used for communication. In different types of literary works and definitions by some authors, linguists, experts, scientists and philosophers similar definitions are also seen.
Samuel Johnson (1755), the author of first English dictionary, mentions about language in the preface of his work stating that he is not yet so lost in lexicography as to forget that words are the daughters of earth and that things are the sons of heaven. Language is only the instrument of science, and words are but the signs of ideas: he wishes, however, that the instrument might be less apt to decay, and that signs might be permanent, like the things which they denote."
Darwin (1871) sees the language as an instinctive tendency and in his book The Descent of Man he states that Horne Tooke, one of the founders of the noble science
of philology, observes, language is an art, like brewing or baking; but writing would have been a better simile. It certainly is not a true instinct, for every language has to be learnt. It differs, however, widely from all ordinary arts, for man has an instinctive tendency to speak, as we see in the babble of our young children; whilst no child has an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, or write. Moreover, no philologist now supposes that any language has been deliberately invented; it has been slowly and unconsciously developed by many steps.
As it is seen, in this definitions and expressions by different scholars language is an important tool for communication and it will always have its own importance in all types of works.
There are some other explanations for language by Wikipedia (2011), too: 1. a system to represent objects, actions, ideas and circumstances.
2. an apparatus which is used to convey their real concept into the minds of others 3. a unified system of meaning
4. a code that is used by a linguistic expert to distinguish between form and meaning. 5. deliver a speech grammar that have been established (eg, words, sentences, and others.) 6. a speech system that will be understood by the linguistic community.
In the Oxford Dictionary (1993), language is defined as a system of sounds and writing that human beings use to express their thoughts, ideas and feelings.
1.2. The History of Translation
"Translation cannot be dissociated from the notion of progress, some even maintain that a society can be measured by the translation it accepts -" Jean-Francois Joly
In our daily life we come up againts with many different situations, events and people, and in order to be away from the discordance or solve the problems, we need something in common. In fact, as a human being we have many common features with the other people around but they are never enough for communication. For that reason, we share a common knowledge with the others, and in order to convey our point we use some sounds. These sounds constitute a whole system which is called language.
When the number of people living on the world and the distances between the continents are considered, one will see that it is impossible to communicate with all the people in the world. But the main reason of this problem is neither the amount nor the mile especially in today’s world, the only reason is the language that people speak in different parts of the world. It is known that there are roughly 6800 living languages around the world and almost 2000 of them have fewer than 1000 speakers. The most spoken of these languages is considered as Chinese (Mandarin) because of the population of its speakers. The second most spoken one is English.
One of the most wondered question about this issue is “why do people speak so many languages ?”. One of the well known story, The Tower of Babel, in Old Testament answers this question in Genesis;
“And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech. And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for morter. And they said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded. And the Lord said, Behold, the people is
one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the city (Genesis 11:5-8, KJV translation).
As it is mentioned in those lines, people’s speaking more than one language is considered as the punishment by God. At the very beginning, all of humanity spoke just one language but after the “Great Flood” they wanted to build a city with a tower whose top would be in heaven, in the kingdom of the Lord. The Lord gets angry about this thought of people and he says nobody could reach his majesty. In order to punish them all and show his power, he makes all these people fell down from the tower. When they fell down, they spoke differently and did not understand each other, anymore. It was impossible for them to live together. For that reason, they had problems in communication and as a result they wanted to be away and build up their own community and started to spread around the world.
In the 49th surah, Al-Hujurat – The Apartments, of Quran, it is stated that God (Allah) created mankind in nations and tribes so that they would find a way to get to know eachother and communicate.
“O mankind! We created you from a single pair of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes that you might get to know one another. Surely the noblest of you in the sight of Allah is he who is the most righteous. Allah is All-Knowledgeable, All-Aware.[13]” (Mideastweb,2011)
From a linguistic point of view, people in ancient times remoted from each other and each group of people had new lives in different areas. They developed different ways of communication and while adjusting themselves to the environment they brought out new sounds to stand in for distinct objects and situations. When those groups met while moving, the interaction and communication of people started. With the start of these interactions and communication, translation started to be seen as a basic need in human life, sometimes even in their own community.
The need for translation has always subsisted in human history. The rise of human enlightment and the interaction of people have contributed immensely to world culture. New ideas, thoughts and developments have made a move around the world and ingested in other cultures. This interaction sometimes eventuated in lack of communication or misperception because of having different backgrounds and life styles. As a result, translation emerged as a bridge to connect the different cultures, societies and people in terms of understanding eachother and bring the misunderstandings to the ground.
The word translation is derived from the Latin word “translatio”, trans and latum, which means “to carry across” or “to bring over”. The Romans used another term, traduco, derived from the Latin origin and this term changed into different words in each society.
The first traces of translation date back to 3000 BC. During the Egyptian Old Kingdoms Sumerian Gilgamesh Epic have been found in four or five Asiatic languages of the second millennium BC.
English translations gradually increased and with Elizabethean translations Renaissance came to England in the 16th century. The development of translation in Europe, reached its peak during this period, “the great age of translations.” The rise of humanism contributed a lot to the translation of text, especially the ancient ones, in Europe. In 16th century England, although many translation works were avaliable in French and some other languages, English translations of these works would come later. In 1558, Nicholas Grimshaw translated Cicero in English and in the preface he criticized the English for not doing so for their country as the Italians, French, Spanish and German did.
Over the next decades such time-honored English efforts were seen such as North's Plutarch (1579; translated not from the original Greek but from the French of the remarkable Bishop Amyot), Florio's Montaigne (1603; 1632 [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1632 .M6]), Golding's Ovid (1565; 1612 [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1612 .O8]), Lodge's Seneca (1614) [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1614 .S4 F], Harington's Ariosto (1603; 1607 [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1607 .A7]), Sandy's Ovid (1626 [KC1626 .O8]; 1632 [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1632 .O9 f]; 1640 [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1640 .O9 f]), and the six ancient authors translated by Philemon Holland: Livy (1600) [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1600 .L5 f]), Pliny (1601) [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1601 .P5 f], Plutarch's Moralis (1603) [Spec Coll Rare Books KC 1603 .P5 f], Suetonius (1606) [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1606
.S9], Ammianus Marcellinus (1609) [Spec Coll Rare Books KC1609 .A4], andXenophon (1632). (Hermes-Press,2012)
During the English Renaissance translations from Greek texts appeared but they were mostly based on translations of translations. Others were translated from Greek into Latin, the universal scholarly language. Translations of Plato did not exist during the Middle Ages. It was only in the 19th century that Plato’s complete works were translated into English from original Greek.
1.3.Types of Translation
“The process of translating comprises in its essence the whole secret of human understanding of the world and of social communication.” Hans Georg Gadamer
Translation has always been a discussion topic among the translators on the ground of the methods used in translating a work. For that reason, translators developed many different ways of translation based on the cultural and historical differences and language families.
The mostly used types of translation are;
Word-for-word translation which is one of the well known methods used in translation. In this type, the source language word is translated into another language by their most common meanings, which can also be out of context at times, especially in idioms and proverbs. The only problem with this translation method is the semantics that especially because of differences between people’s life styles, history and cultures, the utterances may make no sense for a reader/speaker of another language.
Literal Translation which is a translation method that the source language grammatical constructions are translated to their nearest target language. What creates a problem in this
method is there are lots of languages spoken around the world and most of them have different grammatical structures.
Faithful Translation interprets the exact contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the grammatical structures of the target language.
Semantic translation refers to that type of translation which takes into account the aesthetic value of the source language text.
Adaptation refers to that type of translation which is used mainly for plays and poems. The text is rewritten considering the source language culture which is converted to the target language culture where the characters, themes, plots are usually preserved.
Free Translation method produces the translated text without the style, form, or content of the original text. The most important feature is the message, impact, feeling and the aim of the writer. The translator can do any changes on the text but trying the avoid changes in meaning.
Idiomatic Translation translates the message of the original text but tends to distort the original meaning at times by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. This method of translation may be considered as a branch of Free Translation.
Communicative Translation method displays the exact contextual meaning of the original text in a manner where both content and language are easily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and the language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the reader (Newmark, 1988).
CHAPTER II
CULTURE
2.1. Definition of Culture
"People of different religions and cultures live side by side in almost every part of the world, and most of us have overlapping identities which unite us with very different groups. We can love what we are, without hating what – and who – we are not. We can thrive in our own tradition, even as we learn from others, and come to respect their teachings" Kofi Annan
Culture is a modern term based on a term first used by Cicero during the Roman period : cultura animi. The term also connoted a process of cultivation or improvement in agriculture. Its first appearance in its current sense was during 18th and 19th in Europe. In the 19th century, the term started to be used as a reference to betterment or refinement of a person through education. After a while, the term started to be defined as fulfillment of national aspirations and ideals. In the mid 19th century, culture is defined to refer to a universal human capacity. In the 20th century, the term emerged as the main field of anthropology and cultural anthropology, a field of anthropology focused on cultural issues among human, emerged as a result of the studies on culture.
Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behaviour of a person acquired through accumulation of experience which is socially transmitted, in other words, it is behaviour through social learning. It is a system of knowledge and experience shared by a large group of people.
Culture is the common characteristic of a particular group of people and it can be defined with anything in ones` life such as language, religion, tradition, taste of social arts, etc.
According to Edward Taylor (1871), culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society. What makes people community all together is the things they have common that culture includes all the fundamentals of a group.
2.2. The Relation of Culture and Language
What We Say Influences What, We Think, What We Feel and What We Believe…
People do not live in this world alone, also they are not alone in the social activities they do. They are very much in language’s power which is the way of expression in society. Language is essentially a means of communication and reflection. The fact is that this world is so large and language is the basic need of all humans. Sapir (1921) states that we see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.
Many scholars from different fields have been impressed by the interaction between language and culture. Linguists wanted to figure out the relation between sounds, words and word order of language. Through this they would have an idea about how people view the world, what they experince and how they react. This was necessary to understand the language and also the values and culture of the society speaking the language.
Human culture cannot be thought seperate from language that language contributes the culture in developing and widespreading. The words used in daily activities and the meaning attributed to these words may differ from one person to another. So we can conclude that the interpretation of meaning has social and personal dimensions.
The relation between language and culture was first suggested by Wilhelm von Humbolt, a German scholar. According to him, language is an activity the character and structure of which express the culture and individuality of the speaker, and he also asserted that man perceives the world essentially through the medium of language. He thus foreshadowed the modern development of ethnolinguistics, which explores the interrelationship of language and culture.
Culture is a common knowledge of humans that live in the same area or have the same roots. According to Damen (1987), it is learned and shared human patterns or models for living; day- to-day living patterns. These patterns and models pervade all aspects of human social interaction that it is mankind's primary adaptive mechanism.
Language and culture are two terms that are firmly embedded. An idea emerges from a person or a group of people and it is shaped between the boundaries of the culture and reflected through the language spoken. As a result, one reflects his own culture in his language. Brooks (1968) argues that physically and mentally everyone is the same, while the interactions between persons or groups vary widely from place to place. Patterns which emerge from these group behaviours and interactions will be approved of, or disapproved of.
Language can be considered as the oral expression of culture. It is used to maintain the culture and cultural ties. A study on language gives many clues about culture. In the same way, cultural studies gives information about the language, too. It should never be forgotten that cultures are hidden in the languages and a change in either affects the other one.
Geography, history and religion are the most important elements that cause cultural differences. For example, Eskimos use twelve different words for the word “snow”. In the Arab world, there are many words (almost 1000) for “camel” that they are grouped according to their natural disposition, characters, tribal associations and the way in which they drink water.
2.3. The Relation of Culture and Translation
"Translation is not a matter of words only: it is a matter of making intelligible a whole
culture." Anthony Burgess
Culture can be considered as the indicator of previous cultures and a light for the future generations. The term is a multifaceted discipline that these facets can be explained by some features in language from different perspectives of social settings.
Newmark (1991) states that language is a mirror that partially reflects the culture that characterizes activities and ideas and their descriptions in things and procedures for a group of people, as well as their particular settings. Language is also worldwide and individual. Translation can defiantly be processed because of the universal and the culturally overlapping components of language. Culture is a phase of the social aspects in language. The only problem is the degree to which the cultural expression is to be clarified in translation.
All the languages in the world reflect the cultural values of the community living together. For that reason, translation can never be thought seperate from culture. Translators reflect the culture of the source language speaker while translating. Meanwhile, it is impossible for a translator to translate all the cultural values into another language because of the differences between languages and cultures. For that reason, one translating a text should try to give the closest meaning in terms of cultural expressions. Especially, translating the idioms, proverbs and some other cultural expressions are the hardest part to translate in terms of conveying the meaning.
The message in the source language is encoded with picture, music, language and such elements, and while decoding in the target language, all these elements are restructured in accordance with the target language. At this point, one of the important issue is the aim of the translation, whether it will be a cultural transfer or adaptation.
In cultural transfer, a translator generally uses the word for word translation method but in adaptation, a translator tries to find the best equivalance of the expression in the target language. For example, the expression “its raining cats and dogs” can be translated like “kedi köpek yağıyor” in Turkish if translator wants to do a cultural transfer. But if he wants to adapt the same expression, the equivalance of this term is “bardaktan boşalırcasına yağmur yagiyor”. In the cultural transfer, the expression makes no sense for the speakers of target language and it may take more time for them to get the meaning. In adaptation they get the meaning easily but they have no idea about the expression in the source language. At that point, the question “do we really need to learn how some expressions used in other languages?” arises.
In different cultures, similar expressions can be given in combination of different words and it is a joy to learn about the other cultures. This is because almost all cultural
expressions have a story that reflects the culture of community in which the speakers of that language live. For example, the expression “kedi köpek yağıyor” makes no sense in our culture but the history of this expression is all about history and culture of British life. Etymologists who study the origin of languages suggest many different mythological and literal explanations for why British people use this expression. According to an e-mail message “ Life in the 1500s” which started to circulate on the internet in 1999, a widely repeated tale is shared. According to this story, that cats and dogs used to cuddle into thatch roofs during storms and then be washed out during heavy rains. However, a properly maintained thatch roof is naturally water resistant and slanted to allow water to run off. In order to slip off the roof, the animals would have to be lying on the outside—an unlikely place for an animal to seek shelter during a storm.
There are some other theories about the same expression. Here are some of them:
Odin, the Norse god of storms, was often pictured with dogs and wolves, which were symbols of wind. Witches, who supposedly rode their brooms during storms, were often pictured with black cats, which became signs of heavy rain for sailors. Therefore, “raining cats and dogs” may refer to a storm with wind (dogs) and heavy rain (cats).
“Cats and dogs” may come from the Greek expression cata doxa, which means “contrary to experience or belief.” If it is raining cats and dogs, it is raining unusually or unbelievably hard.
“Cats and dogs” may be a perversion of the now obsolete word catadupe. In old English, catadupe meant a cataract or waterfall. A version of catadupe existed in many old languages.In Latin, for example, catadupa. was borrowed from the classical Greek κατάδουποι, which referred to the cataracts of the Nile River. So, to say it’s raining “cats and dogs” might be to say it’s raining waterfalls. (Loc,2012)
No matter which one is the true story behind the expression, all of the explanations give us clues about the history, culture and life style of the people using this. So, it is impossible for one to dissociate translation and culture.
One should never forget that, of course, translating and sometimes adapting can be used in translation but sometimes there are some cultural elements that are really difficult to translate
because there is neither an exact word to explain nor equivalance, and this creates a gap between the source language and target language. These gaps brought out a new discussion about whether full translation is possible or not posssible and the translatability and untranslatability of terms emerged.
2.3.1. Translatability
Translatability is a key term for understanding the cultures and interactions between cultures. There are two approaches to translatability: the universalist and the monadist one. The universalist approach ensures the existence of linguistic universals of translatability.
The monadist approach maintains that each linguistic community interprets reality in its own particular way. Some theorists were confused with the extreme definitons of both theories and some tried to combine both perspectives and define the term on their own way.
The issue of translatability started to be discussed in the nineteenth century when linguistic science heartened to ask theorotical questions to translation field. After that, the attention on translation methodology and principles of translation were focused on. New theories on language and communication provendered new ideas about the possibility of concepts in one language unlike from the ones they were conceptualised.
According to Von Humboldt, Schlegel, Schleiermacher and Schadewaldt , each language was immeasurable in their own existence. Von Humboldt’s sentences, from a letter to A.W. Schlegel, dated July 23, 1796, reflects their approach to translation:
‘All translation seems to me simply an attempt to solve an impossible task. Every translator is doomed to be done in by one of two stumbling blocks: he will either stay too close to the original, at the cost of taste and the language of his nation, or he will adhere too closely to the characteristics peculiar to his nation, at the cost of the original. The medium between the two is not only difficult, but downright impossible’ (Wilss, 1982).
According to von Humboldt, the structural differences which exist between languages were not difficult for translation. Why von Humboldt explains this is that each linguistic
community has a potential of expression which can generate resources for verbalising every extralinguistic area, even those which go beyond its own social and cultural experience. This means that even if the translation is perfect there is still a gap because of the differences in culture and language. So, it was so difficult to mention about the translatability of texts.
J. C. Catford (1965) proposed a method to evaluate the translatability based on the degree to which a given text can be contextualised in the target language, taking into consideration all linguistic and extralinguistic factors. He puts some limits to translatability in his method :
1. Translation between media is impossible (the oral form of a text cannot be translated into the written form of a given text, and vice versa).
2. Translation between the “medium-levels” (phonology and graphology) and the grammatical and lexical levels is impossible (source language phonology cannot
be translated into target language grammar, and so on).
According to Catford, in order to have a equivalance, the SL and TL must have important features in common. However, his view is contradicted by practical evidence because of the differences in linguistic values and cultures.
2.3.2. Untranslatability
Translation is an important factor for communication. One should assume that communication means translation either inside or between the languages. Despite the similarities between the languages, nobody can overlook the differences. Sometimes there may be some elements that cannot be translated into another language. In fact, these differences across languages can be provided with some equivalents; however, there are many situations that there is no way to create meaningful and true correspondence between languages. This shall be noted as untranslatability.
Manafi Anari (2003) defines a kind of applicable definition for untranslatability. He states that when a translator can not convey the meaning from one language into another, it is
the exact place that untranslatability takes place. During his poetry studies, he believes that finding total equivalence in poetry is almost impossible.
Catford (1965) defines his theory of translation based on linguistics. He explains one of the significant parts of his study which is the notion of untranslatability. He says that there are two kinds of untranslatability and they are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.
Untranslatability is described in the Oxford Online dictionary as (of a word, phrase, or text) not able to have its sense expressed in another language. Simply, expressions of a given language that simply cannot be converted into other languages.
It can be a single word or a phrase, either written text or verbal utterance (Wisegeek, 2012). As idioms, proverbs, poems, some daily cultural expressions and kinship are a part of a culture, it is so difficult to translate them into another language. In fact, they can be expressed with similar expressions or explained through using many words or sentences but it is considered as untranslatability.
Some examples of untranslatability from different languages;
Pochemuchka (Russian) : for a person who asks a lot of questions
Jayus (Indonesian) : a joke so poorly told and so unfunny that one cannot help but laugh
Iktsuarpok (Inuit) : to go outside to check if anyone is coming
Saudade (Portuguese) : for a type of longing, missing something or someone
Cafuné (Brazilian Portuguese): The act of tenderly running one’s fingers through someone’s hair
Toska ( Russian) :a sensation of great spiritual anguish, often without any specific cause. At less morbid levels it is a dull ache of the soul, a longing with nothing to long for, sick
pining, a vague restlessness, mental throes, yearning. In particular cases it may be the desire for somebody of something specific, nostalgia. (Lexiophiles,2012).
There is no standard English word for the Yiddish "makhatunim" or the Spanish"consuegros": a gender-neutral collective plural like "co-in-laws". If Harry marries Sally, then in Yiddish, Harry's father is the "mekhutn" of Sally's father; each mother is the "makheteyneste" of the other. In Romanian, they are “cuscri”. In Bengali, both fathers are Beayi and mothers, Beyan (Wikipedia, 2013).
Spanish contrasts "brother" with "brother-in-law" ("hermano", "cuñado"); "son" with "son-in-law" ("hijo", "yerno"), and similarly for female relatives like "sister-in-law" ("cuñada"); "daughter-in-law" ("nuera"). Bengali has Dada/Bhai for brother and Jamai-Babu/Bhagni-Pati for brother-in-law; Chhele for son and Jamai for son-in-law (Wikipedia, 2013).
Serbian and Bosnian have specific terms for relations by marriage. For example, a "sister-in-law" can be a "snaha/snaja" (brother's wife, though also family-member's wife in general), "zaova"(husband's sister), "svastika" (wife's sister) or "jetrva" (husband's brother's wife). A "brother-in-law" can be a "zet" (sister's husband, or family-member's husband in general), "djever/dever"(husband's brother), "šurak/šurjak" (wife's brother) or "badžanak/pašenog" (wife's sister's husband). Likewise, the term "prijatelj" (same as "makhatunim" in Yiddish, which also translates as"friend") is also used. Bengali has a number of in-law words. For example, Boudi (elder brother's wife), Shaali (wife's sister), Shaala (wife's younger brother), Sambandhi (wife's elder brother/Shaali's husband), Bhaasur (husband's elder brother), Deor (husband's younger brother) Nanad (husband's sister), Jaa (husband's brother's wife), etc. (Wikipedia, 2013)
In Spanish, Concuño or Concuñado (varying by dialect) is the relationship between two men that marry sisters (or two women that marry brothers). In the English language this relationship would be lumped in with "Cuñado" (sibling's husband or spouses brother) as simply "brother-in-law" (Wikipedia, 2013).
In Russian, fifteen different words cover relations by marriage, enough to confuse many native speakers. There are for example, as in Yiddish, words like "сват" and "сватья" for "co-in-laws". To further complicate the translator's job, Russian in-laws may choose to address each other familiarly by these titles. (Wikipedia, 2013)
In contrast to all of the above fine distinctions, in American English the term "my brother-in-law" covers "my spouse's brother", "my sister's husband", and "my spouse's sister's husband". In British English, the last of these is not considered strictly correct. (Wikipedia, 2013)
In Arabic, "brother" is often translated into أخ (Akh). However, whilst this word may describe a brother who shares either one or both parents, there is a separate word - قي ق ش (Shaqeeq) - to describe a brother with whom one shares both parents. (Wikipedia, 2013)
In Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Lao, Tagalog, Turkish, most north Indian languages, Sinhala, Tamil, Telugu and Hungarian there are separate words for "older brother" and "younger brother" and, likewise, "older sister" and "younger sister". The simple words "brother" and "sister" are rarely used to describe a person, and most commonly appear in the plural. (In Hungarian, however, the terms "fiútestvér" and "lánytestvér", meaning "male sibling" and "female sibling" respectively, exist but are not commonly used.) (Wikipedia, 2013)
Objects unknown to a culture can actually be easy to translate. For example, in Japanese, wasabi わさび is a plant (Wasabia japonica) used as a spicy Japanese condiment. Traditionally, this plant only grows in Japan. It would be unlikely that someone from Angola (for example) would have a clear understanding of it. However, the easiest way to translate this word is to borrow it. Or one can use a similar vegetable's name to describe it. In English this word is translated as wasabi or Japanese horseradish. In Chinese, people can still call it wasabi by its Japanese sound, or pronounce it by its Kanji characters, 山葵 (pinyin: shān kuí). However, wasabi is currently called 芥末 (jiè mò) or 绿芥 (lǜ jiè) in China and Taiwan. Horseradish is not usually seen in Eastern Asia; people may parallel it with mustard. Hence,
in some places, yellow mustard refers to imported mustard sauce; green mustard refers to wasabi (Wikipedia, 2013).
Another method is using description instead of a single word. For example, languages like Russian and Ukrainian have borrowed words Kuraga and Uruk from Turkic languages. While both fruits are now known to the Western world, there are still no terms for them in English. English speakers have to use "dried apricot without core" and "dried apricot with core" instead.
It should be pointed out that the words/expressions given may have no equivalence in another language. For example, for the word “Pochemuchka”, we have an expression in Turkish “meraklı Melihat” but the expression in Turkish does not convey the same meaning as in Russian. In order to explain the other words we need explanatory sentences because there are not equivalant words that indicates the same meaning.
2.3.2.1. Untranslatability in Daily Expressions
Many expressions in Turkish have no equivalance in English. Literal translation can be applied but there is no sense in the sentences. For example;
Turkish expression : Usta ! Ortaya yanar döner bişi getirsene.
Translation : Master ! Bring something turning- burning into the middle.
Meaning : The expression can be used in a restaurant but the expression “yanar döner” is used as redublication and it is used to express a different kind
of meal .
Turkish expression :Benim tersim çok pistir. Translation :My back is so dirty.
Meaning : It is used to express anger. “Benim tersim” / “tersim” expresses the opposite attitude of a person. Suppose that he is a good person and
using that expression means he may suddenly become a bad person if he gets angry.
Turkish expression :Bakkoçum ben Anadolu çocuğuyum! Translation : Look my raw! I am Anatolian son !
Meaning : “Koçum” is an expression that is used to express the power of the person you are talking to. “Anadolu çocuğu” has many deeper expressions.The basic one is a combination of good, brave, plucky, etc
Turkish expression :Temiz aile kızı o kız. Translation :She is a clean family girl.
Meaning : “Temiz aile” is an expressions used for the families that have good behaviours and loved by people around.
Turkish expression : Bir tavuk döner bir ayran lütfen ! Translation : A chicken translation and ayran please !
Meaning :“Tavuk döner” is name of food also known as Shawarma by Arap world but it is something totally cultural and also the word “ayran” is a kind of drink that is a mixture of water and yoghurt.
Turkish expression :Başınız sağ olsun !
Translation : Hope your head is safe (equivalance my condolances !) Meaning : The English equilance does not include all the meanings of the expression “başınız sağ olsun”. It is an utterance told to the relatives of a person after the funeral. It is a way of saying i am sorry for your loss, thank God you are alive, and so on.
Turkish expression :Sıhhatler olsun !
Translation : There should be health !
Meaning : This expression is told to a person who just had a hair-cut or bath.
Turkish expression :Gözümsün ! Translation : You are my eye.
Meaning : This utterance is said to a person we love when he does a favor or say something good for/about us.
Turkish expression : Ne ayaksın sen !
Translation : What kind of a foot you are !
Meaning : This expression is told to the people whom you can not understand whether he is a hostile or a friend.
Turkish expression : Ohoooo ! Translation :
Meaning :It has been a long time.
Turkish expression :Efendime söyleyeyim ! Translation : I will tell to my master.
Meaning : It is an utterance used to indicate that the speaker will give some more detailed information or the rest of the story he is talking about.
Turkish Expression : Bes kardes geliyor
Translation : Five brothers/sisters are coming
Meaning : It is an utterance used to indicate that the speaker is getting angry and will slap in the face. Five stands for the fingers
Turkish Expression :Topla gel kardesim, topla gel
Translation : Come with ball brother, come with ball
Meaning : this utterance is used by a person who helps someone to park a car. In
fact, the speaker means that the driver is close to the pavement almost done for the parking.
Turkish expression : Sana gununu gosteririm Translation : I will show you your day
Turkish expression : Helal sut emmis Translation : Sucked halal milk
Meaning : it is an utterance used for people who are really good in personality
As it is seen in the above examples cultural expressions are so difficult to translate into another language. The translations given are all word-for-word and make no sense for the hearer/reader.
2.3.2.2. Untranslatability in Kinship
When compared to English spoken countries, it can easily be said that there is a huge cultural difference between these cultures and Turkish culture. This difference can easily be seen in daily life and also the customs. In Turkish traditions family is so important and some people still live in large families. For that reason the words used in calling the ones that are in your large family are so important. There are some kinship in Turkish those are simply expressed just with one and same word in English.
Turkish word : Enişte
English : Brother in law
Meaning : Used for husband of daughter / aunt
Turkish word :Yenge
English : Sister in law
Meaning : Used for the wife of brother / uncle
Turkish word : Teyze
English : Aunt
Meaning : the sister of mother
Turkish word : Hala English : Aunt
Turkish word : Dayı
English : Uncle
Meaning : Brother of mother
Turkish word : Amca English : Uncle
Meaning : Brother of father.
Turkish word : Anneanne
English : Grandmother
Meaning : Mother of mother
Turkish word : Babaanne
English : Grandmother
Meaning : Mother of father
Turkish word : Bacanak
English : Brother in law
Meaning : Husband of one’s wife’s sister
Turkish word : Baldız English : Sister in law Meaning : Sister of one’s wife
Turkish word : Görümce
English : Sister in law
Meaning : sister of one’s husband
Turkish : Kayın
English : Brother in law
Meaning : Brother of one’s husband
English : sister in law/co-sister-in-law Meaning : a woman's husband's brother's wife
2.3.2.3. Untranslatability in Idioms and Proverbs
The best examples of untranslatability are idioms and proverbs because they are all cultural utterances. Idioms are expressions that are a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not dedicible from those of the individual words. They make no sense when translated into other language.
Burnundan fitil fitil getirmek : used to express the style of the punishment for one. Sıkıntıdan patlamak : getting bored a lot
Gözlerini belertmek : the eyes shape after hearing a shocking news. Dest-i izdivaca talip olmak : used while purposing marriage
Abacı kebeci, sen neci? : used to express the person should not be there. Acı söz söylemek : used to express how much one’s words hurt Hangi rüzgar attı ? : used when someone unexpected comes.
Dam üstünde saksağan vur beline kazmayı : when something has no relevance with the main issue
Ha Hoca Ali, Ha Ali Hoca : used for the situations when the expression is not important
Also in the same way, proverbs are so difficult to be expressed. These sentences are short, well known, pithy saying or stating a general truth or piece of advice. It is unarguable that the culture, religion, history and such issues all affect the general truths of a society and the words used and the implied meanings will differ.
Ürümesini bilmeyen it, sürüye kurt getirir : someone who doesn’t obey to rules destroys the society.
Üzüm üzüme baka baka kararır. : character/personality and acts of people are affected by the people whom they are in interaction
Harman yel ile düğün el ile. :Everything depends on something else to happen Harman döven öküzün ağzı bağlanmaz. :If someone is doing his job, do not try to hinder him
Can çıkmayınca huy çıkmaz. : It is impossible to change someone.
2.3.2.4. Untranslatability in Poems and Songs
The most difficult part of translation is doubtlessly in poems and songs. The figures of speech and even the punctuation have different functions in a poem than any other literary work. In fact, it is not difficult to translate a poem but there are some elements like feelings, punctuations, and usage of words that makes the translator to have difficulty during translation process. It is a known fact that no other language can reveal the same thoughts and feelings of a poet in other language.
Haykırdı ak tolgalı beylerbeyi "ilerle" Bir yaz günü geçtik tunadan kafilelerle
These lines are by Yahya Kemal Beyatlı. If we try to translate it, we will fail for sure. It is impossible to explain all the important words while translating. For example “Ak Tolgalı Beylerbeyi” is used as a kenning and it stands for a historical figure , the importance of “tunayı geçmek kafilelerle” (passing Tuna River with tribes) is just an utterance for many cultures but for Turks it is a really important event in the history.
I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody, too? Then there's a pair of us -- don't tell!
They'd advertise -- you know!
In the same way, it is impossible for a translator to make the reader feel the same feelings while reading the original lines of the poem above by Emily Dickinson. Especially, “don’t tell” part can be expressed using many different expressions such as “kimseye söyleme”, “sus”, “başkasına anlatma”, etc.. Translator will doubt which one to use or the expression he used will be just a synecdoche or vice versa. The important point is giving the same meaning and same feelings to the reader.
Altın Hızma Mülayim Seni Hak'tan Dileyim Yaz Günü Temmuzda Sen Terle Ben Sileyim
Gün Gördüm, Günler Gördüm Seni Gördüm Şad'oldum
These lyrics by Abdurrahman Kızılay are impossible for a translator to find an equivalant word for most of the words and expressions. There are some words related to religion and especially culture. For example, there is no way to explain the importance of sweat. It may be disgusting for some other cultures but in Turkish culture, it is a word that reflects how hardworking a person is.
CHAPTER III
AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION
3.1. The History of Audiovisual Translation
Audiovisual translation is a branch of translation studies related with the transfer of multimodals and multimedal texts.
Although all the production in the early years of film industry was silent, there was, according to Ivarsson and Carroll (1998), very strong intention to convey to the viewers the dialogue, which is spoken by actors on the screen. This was solved by intertitles – which is called subtitles today. The intertitles were short texts written and placed in between episodes of a film. Translating in such films were so easy that the only thing that should be done was to write an explanation for the scene. All the intertitles or in other words subtitles were in the original language and after translation they were located into the film again. Sometimes a speaker translated the written part simultaneously in the cinema during presenting.
After the introduction of sound film in the late 1920s, the problem of translation emerged as a serious issue in film making industry. According to Kautský (1970) , the primary way to deal with the complication was multilingual shooting. This suggests that one film was shot several times, successively in English, German, Italian and French. The scenario of such a film was translated into these languages and every scene had to be shot four times on the same set. When English actors have finished, Kautský claims, they were replaced by Germans, who were then replaced by Italians etc. But it is obvious that this way of film internationalisation had to be abandoned very soon. Not only was it extremely expensive, but it was also very time-consuming (the shooting itself as well as the journey of European actors to the United States). Moreover, people who did not speak any of these four languages did not understand the film anyway. For all these reasons, a new way of translation had to be discovered.
According to Forbes and Street (2000), the advent of sound films in the late 1920s put the final touches on the American domination of European film industries. Big film making companies were unable to satisfy the demand of European audiences for films in their native languages. In the second half of 1920s, by the help of technological developments, it became possible to revoice certain parts of a dialogue or edit the sound scenes that have been made in noisy areas. After a while, revoicing was used to replace the source dialogue with a translation version. It was the first forerunner of dubbing as we call today. Simultaneous advances in handling of celluloid films during 1920s let the film makers to lay over titles onto film stript views using optical and mechanical materials. By the end of 1920s, using this evolved version of intertitles to provide the translation of source dialogue became customary, this was the first step for the improvement of modern subtitling.
The changes in film industry in terms of translation, new techniques and all the innovations acceptance by the European audiences put an end to American control of European markets. But, American films regained a market share of 70 per cent in Europe and in 1937 Latin America film industry dominated by American again. This second wave of domination was considered as a threat for European film industry also it is regarded as a factor that threat their respective languages, cultures and regimes. This numerosity of European interests and ideologies leaded each country to cinematograph their own films. Despite their efforts, the domination of the American film industry stayed on unchanged.
3.2. Types of Audiovisual Translation
There are three types of audiovisual translation; dubbing, voiceover and subtitling.
3.2.1 Dubbing
Dubbing, also known as (post-)synchronisation, is the chief form of audiovisual translation especially among larger language communities such as France, Germany, Italy, and Spainwhich are predominantly dubbing countries.
Dubbing consists of replacing SL verbal elements on the soundtrack with TL. Dries (1995) describes it as a multiplex process in which the foreign dialogue is adjusted to the mouth movements of the actor in the film. According to Shochat and Stam (1985) the audience keep back the possibility of incorrect translation. And they forget about the reality that translation exists.
Dubbing is a collobarative work consisting a number of actors, technical staff and some other experts for that reason, when its costs compared to other types of audiovisual translation such as subtitling, they are higher.
According to Barbe (1996), one of the major restraints of dubbing is the agreement between the articulatory movements seen and the sounds heard. Delabastita (1989) tells that while the audience expect movements and sounds to match the restraints of synchrony differs according
3.2.1.1. Lip-synchronized dubbing
Lip-synchronized (or lip-sync) dubbing is one of the main forms of film translation, the other being interlingual subtitling. In audiovisual translation, dubbing consists of re-recording the original voice in the target language by dubbing actors’ voices. In terms of delivery pace and lip movement, the dubbed dialogue aims to revive the original. Dubbing requires a complex juggling of semantic content, cadence of language and technical prosody while bowing to the prosaic constraints of the medium itself.
3.2.2.Voice over
Voiceover is one of the multimedia translation services commonly used in video productions to alter the audio content not spoken by an actor in a particular scene. This is mainly used in documentaries generally to describe the scene shown. Voiceover does not require the same procedures in dubbing or subtitling but it still needs to follow a time range. This type of film translation also requires proper equipment and expertise.
3.2.3. Subtitling
Subtitling is one of the area of translation and it is a field of audiovisual translation. which covers dubbing, audiodescription and voiceover. It is divided into two types: subtitling within the same language, for deaf and hard of hearing ( also called captioning), and subtitling to each of the language, for foreign language cinema and TV. According to Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997), subtitling is the process of providing synchronized captions for film and television dialogue. Gottlieb (1992) describes subtitling as a 1) written, (2) additive (i.e. new verbal material is added in the form of subtitles), (3) immediate, (4) synchronous, and (5) polymedial (i.e. at least two channels are employed) form of translation.
The task of the subtitler is so difficult because subtitles are so limited on the screen. Subtitling is not only translating the dialogue, also other meaningful language in films such as signs, letters, captions and other written words. If the film has more than one written language and dialogue happening at the same time, it is a difficult situation for the subtitler. When compared to other fields of audiovisual translation , as it is mentioned before, subtitling is the cheapest way and it takes less time for that reason it is a common way of audiovisual translation for smaller countries.
As a professional translator, Gottlieb devised a set of strategies used by translators, these are (1) Expansion (2) Paraphrase (3) Transfer (4) Imitation (5) Transcription (6) Dislocation (7) Condensation (8) Decimation (9) Deletion (10) Resignation
