Başlık: A PSYCHO-SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ABOUT THE ATTITUDE CHANGES IN DIYARBAKIR VILLAGESYazar(lar):BAŞARAN, FatmaCilt: 7 Sayı: 0 Sayfa: 153-171 DOI: 10.1501/Felsbol_0000000071 Yayın Tarihi: 1969 PDF

T H E A T T I T U D E

C H A N G E S I N D I Y A R B A K I R V I L L A G E S *

FATMA BAŞARAN

Associate Professor of Social Psychology,

University of Ankara

This is a brief summary of "A Psycho-Sociological Research About the

Attitude Changes in Diyarbakir Villages".

In this article only the results of this field research have been presented.

The purpose of the study:

The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitude changes in vil­

lages as a resuit of social reforms and the on going modernization in Turkey.

This study aims at finding out ta what extent and at what rate attitudes have

changed and finding out those attitudes that change quicker and those that

change later, in other words, the attitudes that show much or little resist­

ance to change. Moreover the relationship between attitude changes and

factors such as age, sex, education, contact with others and the outside world

and the sociability of individuals have also been studied.

Recognizing the social attitudes of individuals in a society gives us the

important psychological quality which is effective in general behaviour of

that society. We wan predict reactions of the people if we know something

about their former attitudes towards certain stimulus situations.

Therefore, in our country where about 70 % of the people live in rural

areas, in order to solve the problems of development, along with the

economi-* This field study consists of 205 pages together with the introduction (10 pages) and

ques-tionaires (9 pages). There are 49 tables explaining the questionaire results in quantitative

man-ner. In addition 4 maps are attached concerning geographical, agricultural, and cultural situa­

tions in the area.

cal and socio-cultural research in villages, we believe t h a t the investigation

about attitudes in rural areas is also a necessity.

It is a fact t h a t people do not accept the influence of their environment

passively, but their perception is selective and t h a t their reactions towards

social stimulus situations are especially under the influence of their former

attitudes.

Thus, such a study of attitudes in villages, can offer us both theoretical

and practical use.

Since individuals form their attitudes aceording to social norms and values,

the changes in these norms and values effect the attitudes of individuals and

cause changes in their perspective attitudes.

In a country like Turkey which is in a transitional stage, as a result of st­

rong changes in social norms (including laws) through reforms, it is possible

to grasp to what extent these changes in norms have been adapted by indi­

viduals, by investigating relevant social attitudes.

In this study which took the local conditions into account especially the

following attitudes have been investigated: Attitudes of rural people towards

cities, schooling, professions, vendetta, inheritence, polygamy (polygyny),

and children according to their sex and number.

The regions of Diyarbakır is chosen for this study as the area of the re­

search, to serve for this purpose. The criteria applied in choosing this area

is as follows:

a) The area had not been subject to any social investigation before, thus

it was almost unknown to outsiders.

b) The area shows a very different social organization, in norms, values,

and attitudes, from other parts of Turkey, especially from the western part.

c) The researcher had access to this environment because of her previous

assignment.

The resarch was carried out in the native Turkmen village, B. Kadıköy,

the native Kurdish village, K. Akören, the village of Turkish immigrants

from Bulgaria, Köprübaşı and Matrani, where the native and the migrated

are mixed.

The work presented here is the analysis based mainly upon the data ob­

tained from two villages of different developmental levels. One of them,

B. Kadıköy, has been under the influence of the neighboring city and

has been subject to more social change the other has been subject to very little

change and is considered having hardly any contact with the neighboring

city.

Method of Study:

This work is a field study. For obtaining information several techniques

used in social sciences are applied. Two months of each four consecutive sum­

mers were spent in the area (1962-1960). During the studies in the area, lib­

rary research was made, monographical studies were carried out in two vil­

lages, directive and nondirective interviews were made, a questionnaie to mea­

sure sociability (as a trait of personality) and another questionnaire to measure

attitude changes of individuals were developed to obtain quantitative data.

The information obtained by the verbal expression of attitudes, were chec­

ked by participating in the lives of the villagers and by observing their actual

behavior. Where other technical means were insufficient, the researcher as

a participant observer was able to go deeper into the subject and to get closer

to the attitudes, thus having also the opportunity to control the results gained

by other techniques. Folklore was also used as a source of data.

The results of attitude questionnaires have been evaluated and the

comparison of the two villages has been inticated in percentages and presented

in tables.

The writer believes t h a t such study should rather be carried out by a

team and it is far from being perfect, but considering the difficult conditions

under which the research has been made, as an original study, it is hoped

t h a t it will give interesting scientific results and useful information in this

field.

Descriptive Data about the Field of Research:

Diyarbakır: is a city with a population of 102.624 in the southeast of

Anatolia. The population of the whole province is 476.974. 31.3 % of the

po-1- The validity and reliability of the questionaires are obtained.

2— In such a place making any social research is very difficult. I had the opportunity of

carrying out this research because I was a teacher both in the Lycee and Teachers Training

College in Diyarbakır for six years. This enabled me to get acquainted with the natives, some vil­

lage teachers and some workers that had working relations with my husband who was an engi­

neer in the Highway Department, in Diyarbakır.

pulation live in the city, 68.7 % in the villages. The local languages are Turkish,

Kurdish, and Arabic, 33.4 % speak Turkish as their mother tongue.

In Diyarbakır there are II primary schools, 1 middle school, 2 technical

institutes (one for girls and one for boys), 1 school for Imams, I Lycee, I nor­

mal school, (I teachers training college), I High School for Hygiene, I Evening

School for Commerce, I Evening School for technicians, and now one Univer­

sity in establishment. (For the present there is only a Faculty of Medicine.)

Only 36 % of the villages have primary schools.

Agriculture and animal husbandry are the main economical occupation

in the area. Although some villagers own lands, most of the villages are owned

by individuals. There is no industry of importance, (except a raki factory,

and a textile factory). The area is known as a center for petroleum and mining

beds. It is important because of the military air fores and the land army

and a military base attached to Nato. The area is the center of highways,

railways and airlines. The town in general, is in the process of growing and

development and cultural change.

The village of Büyük Kadıköy: is 21 km. from Diyarbakır, located near

a highway, with a population of 940. It is 20-25 minutes to Diyarbakır by

bus. The village mini-bus makes several daily trips between the village and

Diyarbakır. The village has had a primary school for 42 years. The main oc­

cupation is agriculture. 60 % of the people own their own lands. 20 homes

out of 156 earn their living by jobs with wages or salaries.

5 % of the population are over 60,68 % are under 30,51 % are under

20 years of age. The increase in population is fast, the infant mortality is

high. Trachoma is highly spread among the children. Solidarity in the villa­

ge depends in a decreasing order of importance, on a sense of belonging to the

same sect (alevi), on kinship, neighbourhood and a sense of belonging to

the same village.

The village is subject to continuous cultural change, especially in material

culture, to the extent t h a t conditions permit.

The land is cultivated by oxen driven plough; one individual owns a

tractor and he also uses it to cultivate others' land to earn money.

Although most of the population know Kurdish, the spoken language

is Turkish. Almost 50 % of the male population is literate. There are even so­

me who have gone beyond primary education.

The type of family is patriarchal. There are three coffee houses and two

groceries. There is one barbershop in the village, working in one of the coffee

houses. In coffee houses, men play cards, read newspapers, and listen to the

radios. Apart from these in the coffee houses, there are 17 radio sests in

private homes and there are totally, 4 sewing machines in homes. (Table

I gives a general information about the population composition according

to age in B. Kadıköy).

Table I

Population composition according to sex and age in B. Kadıköy1

Age Groups

0- 9

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70 and over

Total

sex

135

95

86

62

37

27

21

5

468

139

113

73

69

35

18

21

4

472

Total

274

208

159

131

72

45

42

9

940

%

29.18

22.10

16.90

14.00

7.60

4.80

4.46

0.96

100.00

B. Kadıköy

1 Numbers are based on the questionnaires carried out during the summer of 1963.

Küçük Akören: is 12 km. away from the road, on the hillside, and 45

km. to Diyarbakır. with a population of 384. It takes one and a half hour by

lorry, 8 hours by foot to reach the town. Usually the villagers walk 12 km. to

reach the main road which takes t h e m to town. The village does not have

its own means of transportation. In rainy seasons contact with the town be­

comes extremely difficult. The main occupation is agriculture. 50 % of the

people do not own their lands. Those who do not own lands work on the land

of others'in neighbouring villages, the transaction (exchange) being done not

with money but in accordance with local customs (by sharing the product).

Kurdish is the generally spoken language. Only those who are back from the

army can speak poor Turkish. Only Il men can read Turkish and 10 of them

have learned it in the army.

The land is cultivated by oxen-driven ploughs. The primary school was

founded only four years ago, and it will turn out its first graduates in a year.

There is the problems of attendance to the school in the village.

There is no radio, no newspapers , and no economical specializations

in the village. Traditions are highly dominant. There are 3 Hacis "pilgrims"

in the village. Religion seems to be a very strong institution in the village.

(Table II gives a general information about the population composition ac­

cording to age in K. Akören).

Table II

Population composition according to sex and age in Küçük Akören

Age Groups

0- 9

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70 and over

Total

Sex

Female

60

34

34

17

9

11

:7

I

173

Male

77

47

40

14

11

14

7

1

211

Total

Number

137

81

74

31

20

25

14

2

384

%

35.7

21.1

19.3

8.1

5.2

6.5

3.6

0.5

100.0

K. Akören

ALLOCATION OF THE FINDINGS

Attitudes Towards the City:

In both villages a positive attitude has been observed towards the

city. The city is valued as superior to the village. Although each village has

an ethnocentric character, the following shows clearly t h a t the city is preferred

to the villages. In a sampling of 71 individuals, only 14 % prefer living in the

B. Kadıköy village. (Table I I I ) Especially those who have had their schoo­

ling away from the village, and had contacts with the city do not favour

living in the village.

Table III

Where would you have preferred to live if it had been left to you?

K. Akören

Opions

In the same village

In Diyarbakır

In big towns

Total

female

5

24

9

38

Male

5

2

26

33

Number

10

26

35

71

%

14.0

36.6

49.4

100.0

B. Akören

Their reason for such a preference is expressed by such factors as the lack

of modern facilities, dirt and tedious life in the village. The only girl who was

in Lycee at the time of research, in Diyarbakır, refused to return to the vil­

lage even during the summer Vacation. The villagers thought she wes be­

littling village life. In Büyük Kadıköy, the inferior living conditions of the

village and the comparatively attractive contitions of the city lead the villa­

gers to prefer city life.

In Küçük Akören the attitudes towards the city are positive. In this

village 69.3 % favor living in the city and 30.7 % in the village. (Table IV)

In both villages, we investigated the reasons for these preferences. In Büyük

Kadıköy the reasons were cited as movies, commercial life, big houses, edu­

cational opportunities, ect., whereas in Küçük Akören the preference was

due to religious motives dominating all others.

Table IV

Where would you prefer to live if it were left to you ?

Opinions

In the same village

In Diyarbakır

In big towns

Total

Female

9

11

—

20

Male

4

10

9

23

Number

13

21

9

43

%

30.7

49.3

20.0

100.0

K. Akören

In spite of the preference for city life in both villages the migration or

mobility from village to city is not as high as is expected.

In this area only the well-to-do can emigrate to the city, if we do not con­

sider those who are obliged to emigrate because they are deprived of land and

because of vendetta.

Attitudes Towards Occupations:

The writer has met great difficulty to get a response to the questionnaire

on the attitudes towards occupations. The reason for this might be t h a t the

villagers did not have a clear idea about occupations. Therefore the subjects

used such expressions as "whatever is greater" or "whichever is higher" ins­

tead of giving specific answers on occupations when asked about what occu­

pations they preferred in general and / or for their sons.

Attitudes Towards Schooling:

Attitudes towards schooling are, in general, positive. In both villages

schooling is approved for both girls and boys. (see Tables, V, VI, VII, and

VIII).

Table V

Should girls finish at least the primary school in your opinion?

Necessary

Not necessary

Indifferent

Total

According

to females

35

3

—

38

According

to males

29

3

1

33

Total

Number

64

6

1

71

%

90.2

8.4

1.4

100.0

Büyük Kadiköy

Table VI

Is it necessary for boys to finish at least the primary school, in your opinion?

Opinions

Necessary

Not necessary

Indifferent

Total

For Boys

According

to females

38

—

—

38

According

to males

32

1

—

33

Total

Number

70

I

—

71

%

98.6

1.4

—

100.0

Büyük Kadıköy

Table VII

Is it necessary for girls to finish at least the primary school in your opinion?

Opinions

Necessary

Not necessary

Indifferent

Total

For Girls

According

to females

17

3

—

20

According

to males

17

6

—

23

Total

Numbers

34

9

—

43

%

79.1

20.9

—

100.0

Küçük Akören

Table VIII

Is it necessary for boys to finish at least the primary school, in your opinion?

Opinions

Necessary

Not necessary

Indifferent

Total

For Boys

According

to females

20

—

—

20

According

to males

23

—

—

23

Total

Numbers

43

—

—

43

%

100

—

—

100

Küçük Akören

An inconsistency has been observed between the results of the ques­

tionnaires and the actual behaviour of the villagers, e. g. in Büyük Kadıköy

where an elementary school existed since 1923, almost half of the population

of males were literate b u t none of the adult female population (over 20 years

of age) could read. The Muhtar himself was a teacher whereas his daughter

could not read and his son was a graduate of Teachers' Training College;

M. Kahya's son was teaching in a middle school but his daughter could not

read at all.

In the last 5-6 years a rapid behavioral change in terms of further schoo­

ling of girls has been observed in the village. Four of the graduates from the

village elementary school have been admitted to the school of nursing and

four to the normal school.

The main educational opportunity to attendance for further schooling

for boys and girls has been the normal schools.

The situation is different in Küçük Akören. The school in this village

was opened in 1961. There still exists the problem of compulsory attendance,

especially for girls. The main reason for this situation may be the fact t h a t

schooling has not yet prove to be functional in the villages, except in writing

letters to those relatives under military service. Morover schooling has depri­

ved the children from helping their parents in and out of home, consequently,

there is a reluctance to attend the school. This means t h a t the school does not

meet the need of daily life but on the contrary, it is considered a hinderance

to the daily functions of families. In addition, the children do not want to go

school, because of their language handicap. (Some interviews in the village

threw light on the actuality of the situation)

Attitudes Concerning Vendetta:

According to the law the idea of vendetta is considered a crime, first be­

cause it results in a series of murders. secondly because it violates the principle

t h a t every individual is responsible for himself. H o w e v e r , cases of vendetta

are seen in the area.

In Büyük Kadıköy, 16.9 % of the villagers have a favourable attitude,

4.3 % of the villagers have no idea. (Table IX)

Table IX

environment

In your opinion, is it necessary that a boy should take his father's revenge ?

Opinions

Necessary

Not necessary

No idea

Total

Female

number

1

36

1

38

%

2.6

94.8

2.6

100.0

Male

Number

11

20

2

33

%

34.3

60.6

5.1

100.0

Total

Number

12

56

3

71

%

16.9

78.8

4.3

100.0

Büyük Kadıköy

In K. Akören 93.1 % of the villagers have a favourable attitude towards

taking revenge; 4.6 % have an unfavourable attitude; 2.3 % have no idea.

(Table X)

Table X

In your opinion, is it necessary that a boy shalls take his father's revenge?

Opinions

Necessary

Not necessary

No idea

Total

Female

Number

20

—

—

20

%

100

—

—

100

Male

Number

20

2

1

23

%

87.1

8.6

4.3

100.0

Total

Number

40

2

1

43

%

93.1

4.6

2.3

100.0

Favourable attitudes towards revenge are stronger and more wide-sp­

read in K. Akören t h a n B. Kadıköy.

In the history of B. Kadıköy there has never been a case of vendetta But

K. Akören cases of vendetta occured untill recent years. In their legendary

songs, the motive of revenge, along with those of love and work, take primary

place. Understanding vendetta as the result of primitive way of thinking

only on the part of the people is a narrow way of looking at the matter. The

adequate analysis should be based on the consideration of the social organi­

zation. In cases which result in vendetta, the various norms of the group for­

ces the individual into this kind of behavior. The influence of group discipli­

ne is very strongly felt. In such cases the mother indoctrinates her son with

the idea of taking the revenge of his father. The son loses his social status

and prestige in the group (village) if he does not take his father's revenge.

He can not continue living his normal life in the village. The individual does

not only lose his status or prestige under such conditions but also feels the

continuous pressure of the group on this subject. In short, doing it become

a matter of social adaptation if he takes his father's revenge his prestige and

status are recovered, even improved.

Attitudes Toward Polygamy:

According to the civil law adopted after the Atatürk Reforms, Turkish

family is monogamic. (1926) In spite of the law cases of polygny are still

observed in this area of Turkey. Relevant attitudes have also been investi­

gated. Therefore along with various interviews and observations made within

people's daily lives, questionnaires, which included the following subjects

were administered:

a) In your opinion, is it proper for a man to marry a second woman if

he can afford it?

b) In your opinion is it proper for a man to take a second wife if he has no

male child, even if he has daughters ? Results from the two villages are shown

in the tables XI and X I I .

Table XI

In your opinion, is it proper for a man to marry a second woman?

Opinions

Proper

Not proper

No idea

Total

Females

Number

—

38

—

38

%

—

100

—

100

Males

Number

2

31

—

33

%

6.1

93.9

—

100.0

Total

Number

2

69

—

71

%

%

2.9

97.1

—

100.0

Büyük Kadiköy

In B. Kadıköy 2.9 % of the sample was in favour of a second marriage

for the man in the case of (a). (Table XI)

In K. Akören 64.4 % of the sample was in favour of a second marriage

in the case of (a). (Table X I I )

Table XII

In your opinion, is it proper for a man to marry again if he can afford it?

Opinions

Proper

Not proper

No idea

Total

Females

Number

8

12

—

20

%

40

60

—

100

Males

Number

18

5

—

23

%

78

22

—

100

Total

Number

26

17

—

43

%

60.4

39.6

—

100.0

In the case of (b), in B. Kadıköy, 80.4 % of the sample was in favour of

a second marriage. (Table X I I I )

In the case of (b) in K. Akören, 95.3 % of the sample was in favour of

a second marriage. (Table XIV)

Table XIII

In your opinion, is it proper for a man to marry again if he has no male child even

though he has daughters ?

Opinions

Proper

Not proper

Indifferent

Total

Females

Number

36

2

38

%

97.3

2.7

—

100.0

Males

Number

21

8

4

33

%

63.7

24.2

12.1

100.0

Total

Number

57

10

4

71

%

80.4

14

5.6

100.0

Büyük Kadıköy

Table XIV

In your opinion, is it proper for a man to marry again if he has no male child,

even though he has daughters?

Opinions

Proper

Not proper

Indifferent

Total

Females

Number

18

2

—

20

%

90

10

—

100

Males

Number

23

—

—

23

%

100

—

—

100

Total

Number

41

2

43

%

%

95.3

4.7

—

100

Küçük Akören

Attitude changes adoptable to new norms occur more often in B. Kadı­

köy. But in the case of the family without a male child, attitudes are still favou­

rable towards a second marriage. Here the norm of the boy being the main

factor in the survival of the family plays a part as the frame of referance. In

the area if a man is asked about the number of his children, he only counts

the boys.

Women change their attitudes towards unfavouring polygny earlier

than men. Especially in B. Kadıköy there are conflicts on this subject. For

example five years ago a woman whose husband decided to marry again called

the gendarme (representative of law) during the ceremony, thus creating a

scandal and hindering the marriage. A folk poetess, then wrote a poem abo­

ut this event.

In K. Akören although women complain of a second marriage, they feel

helpless in their defence. Especially in K. Akören polygny events are fewer

t h a n expected because the men can not provide for "başlık" money.

The basic reasons for polygny are listed as:

1. To have a male child

2. To have another productive member in the family

3. As a result of early marriage , women give birth to many children and

this leads to early wear-out, so the husband desires a younger wife.

Attitudes Towards Inheritance:

Modern Turkish law allows equal share to men and women in inheritan­

ce.

The moslem law allows two shares to men and one share to women. Ac­

cording to the local tradition women do not inherit at all. All three norms can

be seen both in values and practice in the a r e a . For this reason it has been

interesting to study the relevent attitudes. According to the results

of the questionnaire in B. Kadıköy 23.9 % have a favourable attitude towards

boys getting two shares, girls getting one share, 69 % have a favourable

attitude towards aqual inheritence. 7.1 % a have a favourable attitude to­

wards girls not inheriting anything (Table XV) although in practice girls do

not inherit, some conflicts have already started on behalf of some of the girls.

They even consult the court for this reason. Thus the villagers find new solu­

tions to prevent the girls from inheriting. (They get a signed paper from the

girl before she marries, thus giving her share to her brothers)

Table XV

Opinions on Inheritance

Opinions

Girls should inherit nothing

Boys should inherit twice as

much as girls

Boys and girls should inherit

alike

Total

Females

Number

15

3

20

38

%

39.4

4.4

56.2

100.0

Males

Number

2

2

29

33

%

6.1

6.1

87.8

100.0

Total

Number

17

5

49

71

%

23.9

7.1

69.0

100.0

Büyük Kadıköy

In K. Akören, according to t h e results of questionnaires 27.9 % have a

favourable attitude towards girls not inheriting 53.3 % have a favourable

a t t i t u d e toards two shares for boys and one share for girls, 18.8 % have a

favourable a t t i t u d e towards equel inheritance. (Table XVI) In K. Akören,

in practice, women do not inherit at all and there are no conflicts on this

mat-ter. The difference between the two villages can be explained by t h e changes

in their socio-cultural conditions. Yet, t h e struggle to obtain equal shares

is motivated by the husband of t h e rich wife. The right for equal share is not

obtained by the woman b u t instead, it is given to her. In reality the woman

is not equipped with the adequate arms to make such a struggle, t h e

tradi-tions do not offer such possibilities for women. The t y p e of family is

patri-archal and woman does not have any economical independence. Women do

not even own the right to share the same table with their husbands during

meals. Both in job differentiation and system t h e main differentiation is

ac-cording to sex.

Table XVI

Opinions on inheritance

Opinions

Girls should inherit nothing

Boys should inherit twice as

much as girls

Boys and girls should inherit

alike

Total

Females |

Number J %

6

12

2

20

30

60

10

100

Males

Number

6

11

6

23

%

26

48

26

100

Total

Number

12

23

8

43

%

27.7

53.3

19.0

100.0

Küçük Akören

Attitudes Towards the Sex and Number of Children:

As a general rule in primitive societies population has a high growth

po-tential. These societies are based on traditions. In modern societies, the r a t e

of population increase and the number of children are less. In underdeveloped

countries it is expected t h a t people have favourable attitudes towards having

a large number of children, especially boys.

Changes in society are also expected to be reflected in attitude changes.

Observations in the area show t h a t more children especially boys are

preferred.

According to the results of questionnaries in B. Kadıköy the average

number of desired children is 4.7, the average number of girls is 2.1, the

average number of boys is 2.6.

In K. Akören, the average number of desired children is 8.1, the average

number of girls, 3, the average number of boys is 5.1

A tendency towards urbanization has been observed in B. Kadıköy.

In confidential interviews with some women, we could see t h a t in B. Ka­

dıköy many of them have favourable attitudes towards birth control, whe­

reas in K. Akören most of them have unfavourable attitudes toward control.

On this subject, the influence of the socio-cultural conditions and especi­

ally family structure, can easily be noticed. Religious point of view which

does not approve of birth control is prevalent in K. Akören.

Comparison of Attitude Changes in Two Villages:

According to the answers received to the items of questionnaires, we have

given weighed scores to answers as "modern" "conservative" and "neut­

ral". Then t h e two villages have been compared according to the totals of each

group of weighed scores. In B. Kadıköy the total weighed scores of "modern"

is 45.5 %. In K. Akören it is 17 % . The total weighed scores of conservatives

in B. Kadıköy is 30.3 % , in K. Akören it is 54.6 % (Table XVII)

Changes of Attitudes and Personality:

a) As is known many investigations have been carried out on this sub­

ject. The possibility of a relationship between the attitudes of the individual

and the sociability characteristic of his personality was previously consi­

dered.

Our questionnaire was applied to 71 subjects in B. Kadıköy about attitu­

de changes,

and the above questionnaire on sociability at the same time.

The score obtained from the administration of both questionnaires to the

same subjects were determined and the correlation between the two was found

to be r = 0.66.

1- We have used H. M. Bell's inventory with four factors selecting two factors and chan­

ging it in large scale by preliminary experiments.

2— Attitude changes questionnaire has been developed by the resercher with due conside­

ration given to the study and the local conditions.

Although the correlation obtained is positive, it is not sufficient to lead

us to definite conclusions about the subjects but it might be useful as hypot­

hesis for further studies.

b) Conformity among attitudes of the individuals towards various ob­

jects was observed when the scores concerning changes in these attitude were

calculated.

This fact led to the idea t h a t a relationship among the attitudes of indivi­

duals towards various objects, which was not thought of at the beginning of

the study, can exist.

Thus an attempt was made to search for a correlation between the total

weighed scores showing the subjects' changes of attitude, and weighed scores

showing their attitudes toward the city. And the results were found as:

r= 0.76 for B. Kadıköy

r= 0.63 for K. Akören

This has led to the conclusion t h a t those who did not want to live in the

village, might have taken as a reference group the nearby city or other large

cities, and t h a t this might have influenced their other attitudes as well.

General Results:

1- It is evident t h a t there is a parallel between the norms and the values

of the society and the attitudes of individuals in general. For example, in

both the villages where the patriarchal family structure and division of la­

bour according to sexes are dominant, the attitudes towards sexes are disc­

riminating especially in the preference of male children, even resulting in

the necessity of a second marriage when there is no male child.

2- As the influence of the town increases, in other words, as the village

loses its isolated quality, new attitudes in accordance with the social norms

of the city come out, or all the attitudes change in t h a t direction. As the vil­

lage loses its isolated character it provides the individuals with new informatio

to establish new group affilations which are important in changing their atti­

tudes. That is the reason why B. Kadıköy has changed its attitudes towards

the new norms more than K. Akören.

3- Positive attitudes, concerning the cultural materials which answer

the needs of individuals, can easily come out or change. There is no psycholo­

gical resistance here. But new attitudes related to religion and tradition are

usually rejected and as a result the previous attitudes can be changed slowly

and with difficulty. For example the attitu des towards the position of women

in the family, the education of girls, and the new system of inheritence are

subject to great resistance, In spite of the new regulations of law this

goes on.

4- The necessary notions to establish new attitues towards certain sub­

jects, do not exist yet. It is difficult to get a clear idea about the attitudes

towards professions.

5- If a new norm introduced to the society does not satisfy the public

or answer their needs, or moreover if it puts obstacles in their established life,

it is subject to resistance in the form of behavior. For example in K. Akören

and in some other villages they do not want to send their children, especially

girls, to school, chiefly for economical reasons. This is an important matter

for the educators to consider. In short, the adults and children must be mo­

tived toward education as well as praised by their environment, to accept

and actualize this norm.

6- Although the formation and changing of attitudes are under the inf­

luence of socio-cultural and environmental factors, the individual differences

also play an important part, and even show some deviation.

7- As the various factors concerning the attitude changes:

a) As regards sex: In general men are more likely to change their atti­

tudes towards new norms than women, because of the possibility of more con­

tact with the outside world; though towards certain subjects as polygny and

birth control women more easily adopt new attitudes t h a n men, because for

them these subjects show a vital importance.

b) Age- Age is not an effective factor by itself, but combined with the

factors schooling or social contacts with the town, it acquires importance.

c) Education: It is pointed out t h a t education is a very effective factor

in attitude changes.

d) Contact with town: It is understood t h a t this factor also is very ef­

fective in attitude changes.

e) Sociability: As the result of the questionnarie on attitude changes

and the questionnarie on sociability applied to 71 people in Büyük Kadıköy,

the correlation of r = 0.66 shows t h a t there is a relation between these two

aspects of personality, b u t it should be taken with reservations and consi­

dered only a hypothesis for further studies.

In short, changes in laws as part of A t a t ü r k reforms are effective in

attiture changes. This effectiveness is more pronouncer in villages t h a t

have lost their isolated nature. The speed of effectiveness increases as t h e

village loses its isolated character more and more.

This study indicated t h a t socio-psychological structure of personality

is greatly effected by the social and cultural environment of the individual.

Social and cultural conditions in a society determine and limit the attitude

formation and covert expression of attitudes.

Each individual has his own temperament, inclinations, mental abilities

and personal experiences. T h a t is, individuals are different both physically

and psychologically, This is t h e reason why each individual is influenced by

by t h e environmental factors in different ways, in other words, each individual

selects his experiences in his own environment.

A society evaluates certain psychological qualities by encouraging,

sti-mulating, refusing, or belittling them.

If we want to develop new attitudes or to change the already established

ones, we can not do this only through rational means, new laws, and even mass

media. The important thing is the existance of an environment where the new

behavior forms are needed, rewarded, approved, and held in high esteem.

Therefore in developing new attitudes, it is very important to establish new

group relationships.