J “X
'С ez
u n: "
— j y t A j x jSu Oui*" і-і і:A3 A MEDIATOR IN THE
İÖ74 G TPEU e UKISIE
T>;T кГ', NV"THE ROLE OF THE
UNITED NATIONS SECRETARY GENERAL AS A MEDIATOR IN THE 1974 CYPRUS CRISIS A THESIS PRESENTED BY TÜLİN DALOĞLU TO THE INSTITUTE OF
ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
^ _
BÎLKENT UNIVERSITY FEBRUARY, 1996
I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of International Relations.
Asst. Prof . D r . Serdar Gilner Thesis supervisor
I certify that I have read this thesis and in' my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of International Relations.
a
J
Asst. Prof.Dr. Nur Bilge Criss
I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of International Relations.
Asst. Prof . D r . Gulgiin Tuna
Approved by the Institute of Economics and Social Sciences
ABSTRACT
This thesis examines the role of the UN Secretary General as a mediator in the 1974 Cyprus Crisis. The main point discussed in the thesis is that the UN Secretary General did not have the necessary leverage to put main driving terms of the two parties to the negotiation table to be discussed. This study depends on the "Conflict Analysis and Resolution" literature. The background of the 1974 Crisis is given and then evaluated in line with the adopted
literature. The study is presented from the Turkish
perspective. The result of the research shows that the lack of leverage of the Secretary General as a mediator prepared the ground for the termination of the conflict with the
Turkish intervention to Cyprus. So, war provided a
ÖZET
Bu tez, 1974 Kıbrıs krizinde Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Sekreteri'nin arabuluculuk rolünü inceleme üzerine yapılmış bir çalışmadır. Tezde tartışılan başlıca konu,
Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Sekreteri'nin, krize taraf
partilerin, başlıca ayrı düştükleri konuları, müzakere
masasında tartışmak üzere, konuları açmaya yeterli gücünün olmadığıdır. Çalışma "İhtilâf Analizi ve Çözümü" teorisine
göre hazırlanmıştır. 1974 krizini hazırlayan sebebler
verildikten sonra, sözü geçen teoriye göre kriz
incelenmiştir. Çalışma Türkiye'nin bakış açısını esas
alarak hazırlanmıştır. Çalışmada varılan sonuca göre BM
Genel Sekreteri'nin arabuluculuk görevindeki yetersizliği,
Türk tarafının Kıbrıs'a müdahalesi ile son bulmuştur.
T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION... 1
CHAPTER II. CRISIS AND MEDIATION IN THE “CONFLICT ANALYSIS AND RESOLUTION” LITERATURE... 5 2.1 CRISIS MANAGEMENT... ■... 5 2.1.1 C R I S I S ... 5 2.1.2 CRISIS MANAGEMENT... 7 2.1.3 CRISIS STRUCTURE... 9 2.2 INTERMEDIARIES AS A THIRD P A R T Y ...12 2.2.1. THE INTERMEDIARY... 12 2.2.2 NEGOTIATION BY AN INTERMEDIARY...13
2.2.3 THE TYPES OF AN INTERMEDIARY INTEREST.... 14
2.2.5 BARGAINING STRUCTURE OF A PRINCIPAL MEDIATOR..16
2.2.6 ACTIONS AND BARGAINING STRATEGY OF THE PRINCIPAL MEDIATOR... 17
2.2.7 BARGAINING RANGE... 19
CHAPTER III. EVALUATION OF THE 1974 CYPRUS CRISIS... 21
3.2 EVALUATION OF THE CRISIS P E R I O D ...27
3.2.1 PRE-CRISIS PERIOD: JULY 15- JULY 19 1974... 27
3.2.2 MID-CRISIS PERIOD: JULY 20 - JULY 24, 1974.... 3 4 3.2.3 CEASE-FIRE AND GENEVA CONFERENCES: JULY 25-AUGUST 13 1974... 36
CHAPTER IV. EVALUATION OF THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS
DURING THE 1974 CYPRUS CRISIS... 52
4.1. THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS DURING THE 1974 CYPRUS C R I S I S ... 52
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION...79
NOTES... 83
C H A P T E R I . I N T R O D U C T I O N F r o m i n d i v i d u a l s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p to s t a t e s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p t he w o r l d h a s a l w ay s w i t n e s s e d c o n f l i c t s a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n . So, o n e c a n no t w o n d e r w h y t h e " C o n f l i c t A n a l y s i s a n d R e s o l u t i o n " l i t e r a t u r e h a s g a i n e d a c r u c i a l p l a c e w i t h i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s s t u d i e s . T h i s l i t e r a t u r e e n a b l e s o n e to g a i n n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s to a n a l y z e c o n f l i c t s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , C y p r u s , w h i c h is a p a r t of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n d a for a l m o s t 32 y e a r s now, h a s b e e n c h o s e n as a c a s e to f o c u s on w i t h t h e h e l p of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . T h e C y p r u s c o n f l i c t t u r n e d to be a c r i s i s in 19 7 4 , w h e n t he G r e e k J u n t a t o o k on t h e c h a l l e n g e . T h i s s t u d y a i m s to e l a b o r a t e t h e r o l e of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s p e r i o d w h e r e he w a s a p p o i n t e d to c o n d u c t its " g o o d - o f f i c e s " m i s s i o n . T h e s t u d y d e p e n d s on t h e " C o n f l i c t A n a l y s i s a n d R e s o l u t i o n " l i t e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r , t h e l i t e r a t u r e s h o u l d be l i m i t e d to a c e r t a i n p a t h
' m e d i a t i o n ' a n d ' c r i s i s ' t u r n e d to be t he k e y t e r m s w i t h i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . T h e 1 9 7 4 C y p r u s c a s e w a s a c r i s i s a l o n g the c o n t i n u u m of t h e o v e r a l l c o n f l i c t . In o r d e r to a n a l y s e t h e case, first, we n e e d to k n o w h o w to e v a l u a t e a c r i s i s a c c o r d i n g to a c e r t a i n t r a c k in t h e ' c o n f l i c t a n a l y s i s a n d r e s o l u t i o n ' l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s a m e is a l s o v a l i d for t h e t e r m m e d i a t o r . As a r e s u l t , t h e c a s e c a n be e x a m i n e d r e f e r r i n g to t he d a t a we o b t a i n f r o m t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e t e r m s . C h a p t e r II, t h e r e f o r e , p r o v i d e s a r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t a n d d i n t e r m e d i a r i e s as a t h i r d p a r t y . C h a p t e r III a i m s at d e s c r i b i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t he c r i s i s . T h i s w o u l d h e l p t h e r e a d e r s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n s w h y t h e p a r t i e s t u r n e d the' c o n f l i c t to a c r i s i s . A f t e r p r e s e n t i n g a c o n c i s e c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n p r i o r to t h e c o n f l i c t , t he c r i s i s is e l a b o r a t e d in i t s e l f . T h e C y p r u s c r i s i s is d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p a r t s in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d its p h a s e s . T h e s e p h a s e s s h o w t h e w a y as to h o w t h e c r i s i s c a n be r e s o l v e d , e i t h e r in p e a c e or in war . T h e c a s e in c o n s i d e r a t i o n p o i n t s o ut t h a t t h e r e s o l u t i o n
w a s r e a c h e d w i t h t he " P e a c e O p e r a t i o n " of t h e T u r k i s h si d e . T h a t m e a n s t h e s e t t l e m e n t w a s r e a c h e d by m e a n s of a war, w h e n it is c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t he T u r k i s h s i d e ' s p o i n t of v i e w . H o w e v e r , t h e t h e s i s a i m s to e l a b o r a t e t h e r o l e of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l as a m e d i a t o r d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s p e r i o d . S i m p l y to say, t h e t a s k of t he U N S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l ' s r o l e w a s to t r y e v e r y m e a n s to r e - e s t a b l i s h t h e b r o k e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s to t h e c o n f l i c t on t h e C y p r u s i s s u e , a n d to l e a d t h e m to r e a c h a s e t t l e m e n t on t h e n e g o t i a t i o n t a b l e s . T h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l is a p p o i n t e d to p l a y h i s p e a c e - p r o V i d i ng t a s k at t i m e s of a c o n f l i c t b a s i n g on hi s l e g a l r i g h t as s t a t e d in t h e U N C h a r t e r . A r t i c l e 1 of t h e C h a r t e r s a y s t h a t
maintain international peace and
security, and to that end: to take
effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful
means and in conformity with the
principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of
international disputes or situations
which might lead to a breach of the peace. (1)
T o r e p e a t o n c e m o r e , in c a s e of a b r e a c h of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a m e d i a t o r h a s to e s t a b l i s h i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s w i t h e a c h of t h e p a r t i e s in o r d e r to a s c e r t a i n t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e c o n f l i c t . H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d a n d d e f i n e d t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e m e d i a t o r , t h e n ha s to r e - e s t a b l i s h t r i l a t e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s in o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e q u a l i f i e d c o n c e s s i o n s . T h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s ca n t h e n l e a d to a r e s o l u t i o n of t h e c r i s i s a c c e p t a b l e by b o t h s i d e s . A s u c c e s s f u l m e d i a t o r , w h o is g o o d at t i m i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d l e v e r a g e , c a n p r o v i d e a g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k b e t w e e n t h e a d v e r s a r i e s . If t h e m e d i a t o r is a b l e to p e r s u a d e t h e p a r t i e s to n e g o t i a t e a n d c o n t i n u e w i t h t h i s p r o c e s s , t h e n o n e m a y e x p e c t q u a l i f i e d c o n c e s s i o n s a c c e p t a b l e to t h e m a n d i s s u e d by e a c h o t h e r . T h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s c a n t h e n be t h e s o u r c e s of p e a c e f u l a n d l o n g l a s t i n g s o l u t i o n to t h e i r p r o b l e m . F i n a l l y , t h e l a s t c h a p t e r t r i e s to u n d e r l i n e t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s t u d y .
" C O N F L I C T L I T E R A T U R E C H A P T E R II. C R I S I S A N D M E D I A T I O N IN T H E A N A L Y S I S A N D R E S O L U T I O N " 2 . 1 C R I S I S M A N A G E M E N T 2 . 1 . 1 C R I S I S T h e t e r m ' c r i s i s ' t o o k its p l a c e in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e in t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e C u b a n M i s s i l e c r i s i s (1962) d u r i n g w h i c h Me Ñ a m a r a t h e US. S e c r e t a r y of D e f e n s e , d e c l a r e d t h a t " t h e r e is no l o n g e r a n y s u c h t h i n g as s t r a t e g y , o n l y c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t . " (1) S e v e r a l d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e t e r m c r i s i s h a v e b e e n m a d e in t h e l i t e r a t u r e . C h a r l e s H e r m a n n d e f i n e s a c r i s i s as a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d t h r e a t e n the m a i n i n t e r e s t s of a s t a t e w h e r e t h e p o l i c y m a k e r s of t h e c o n c e r n e d s t a t e h a v e a s h o r t t i m e to f o r m u l a t e a p o l i c y a n d w h e r e t h e r e is an e l e m e n t of s u r p r i s e . (2) G l e n n H. S n y d e r a n d P a u l D i e s i n g , in t h e i r b o o k C o n f 1 i c t_A m o n g _N at io n s d e f i n e c r i s i s as.
a s e q u e n c e of i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n th e g o v e r n m e n t s of two or m o r e s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s in s e v e r e c o n f l i c t , s h o r t of a c t u a l war, b ut i n v o l v i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n of a d a n g e r o u s l y h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y of w a r . (3) C o r a l B e l l t r a c e s t he w o r d " c r i s i s " to its G r e e k d e r i v a t i o n to m e a n s i m p l y a ' d e c i s i o n p o i n t ' or ' t u r n i n g p o i n t ' of an i l l n e s s . (4) F o r o t h e r a n a l y s t s , t he t e r m d e n o t e s an e v e n t or s i t u a t i o n t h a t is c o n f i n e d w i t h i n a m u c h s h o r t e r p e r i o d of time, a n d is m e a s u r e d in d a y s or w e e k s r a t h e r t h a n y e a r s . At t h e c o r e of t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s t h e r e a r e t h r e e c o m m o n e 1 e m e n t s : (a) A p e r c e p t i o n of t h r e a t to h i g h - p r i o r i t y g o a l s ; (b) A s h o r t a g e of t i m e in w h i c h to f o r m u l a t e r e s p o n s e s ; (c) A h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y of an e s c a l a t i o n in v i o l e n c e . In fact, c r i s e s a r i s e o ut of c o n f l i c t s , b u t t h e y a r e e a s i e r to s t u d y t h a n c o n f l i c t s as t h e y c a n be i s o l a t e d f r o m n o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n s as o p p o s e d to c o n f l i c t s . A c r i s i s h a s a l i f e c y c l e of its own. A c r i s i s b e g i n s , g r o w s , a n d t h e n d i e s . B e l l s t a t e s in h i s s t u d y . T h e C o n v e n t i o n s _Q-f_C r i s i s that.
t h e e s s e n c e of t r u e c r i s i s in a n y g i v e n r e l a t i o n s h i p is t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n it r i s e to a l e v e l w h i c h t h r e a t e n s to t r a n s f o r m t he n a t u r e of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . T h e c o n c e p t is of n o r m a l s t r a i n r i s i n g to t h e l e v e l of b r e a k i n g s t r a i n . (5) So, c r i s e s lie at t h e c r u c i a l t h r e s h o l d b e t w e e n p e a c e a n d wa r . T h e a c t o r s m a y t r a n s f o r m w i t h b e i n g f i r s t a l l i e s t h e n b e c o m i n g a d v e r s a r i e s , or t h e r e m a y be r e l a t i v e l y m i n i m a l c h a n g e s in a c t o r s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p as a r e s u l t . Y o u n g c o n s i d e r s t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s d e f i n e s c r i s i s as; a p r o c e s s of i n t e r a c t i o n o c c u r r i n g at h i g h e r l e v e l s of p e r c e i v e d i n t e n s i t y t h a n t h e o r d i n a r y f l o w of e v e n t s a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e d by: a s h a r p b r e a k f r o m t he o r d i n a r y f l o w of p o l i t i c s ; a r i s e in t h e p e r c e i v e d p r o s p e c t s t h a t v i o l e n c e w i l l b r e a k out; a n d s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e s t a b i l i t y of s o m e s y s t e m or s u b s y s t e m (or p a t t e r n of r e l a t i o n s h i p ) in i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . (6) He 2 . 1 . 2 C R I S I S M A N A G E M E N T ' M a n a g e m e n t ' is d e f i n e d as c o n t r o l in t h e O x f o r d D i c t i o n a r y . C r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t a i m s to c o n t r o l c r i s e s so t h a t w a r d o e s n ot b r e a k out t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of p a r t i c i p a n t s '
m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d m i s t a k e s . P h i l W i l l i a m s d e s c r i b e s c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t as f o l l o w s : c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d on t h e on e h a n d w i t h the p r o c e d u r e s for c o n t r o l l i n g a n d r e g u l a t i n g a c r i s i s so t h a t it d o e s not get out of h a n d a n d l e a d to war, a n d on t h e o t h e r w i t h e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e c r i s i s is r e s o l v e d on a s a t i s f a c t o r y b a s i s in w h i c h t h e v i t a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e s t a t e a r e s e c u r e d a n d p r o t e c t e d . T h e s e c o n d a s p e c t w i l l a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y n e c e s s i t a t e v i g o r o u s a c t i o n s c a r r y i n g s u b s t a n t i a l r i s k s . O n e t a s k of c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t , t h e r e f o r e , is to t e m p e r t h e s e r i s k s , to k e e p t h e m as l o w a n d as c o n t r o l l a b l e as p o s s i b l e , w h i l e t h e o t h e r is to e n s u r e t h a t t h e c o e r c i v e d i p l o m a c y a n d r i s k - t a k i n g t a c t i c s a re as e f f e c t i v e as p o s s i b l e in g a i n i n g c o n c e s s i o n s f r o m t he a d v e r s a r y a n d m a i n t a i n i n g o n e ' s o w n p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e l y i n t a c t . (6) In a c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n , e a c h s t a t e t h e r e f o r e a t t e m p t s to s e e k w h a t is in its b e s t i n t e r e s t . E a c h h a s c e r t a i n g o a l s or o b j e c t i v e s w h i c h it s t r i v e s to at. tain, a n d t h e s e g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s c o n t r a d i c t m o s t l y w i t h a d v e r s a r i e s ' i n t e r e s t s . J o s e p h B o u c h a r d i n t e r p r e t s t h i s s i t u a t i o n as, "a c r i s i s is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a b a r g a i n i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t he t w o s i d e s " . (7) E a c h p a r t y to t h e c o n f l i c t , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , f o r c e s t h e o t h e r to t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o t h e r s '
d e c i s i o n s , a c t i o n s , a n d o b j e c t i v e s w h e n f o r m u l a t i n g its o w n p o l i c y . T h i s a c t i o n -r e a c t i o n p -r o c e s s b e t w e e n s t a t e s e n t a i l s a g -r e a t d e g r e e of risk, b e c a u s e p a r t i e s p u r p o s e f u l l y r a i s e t h e i r o w n r i s k l e v e l s in o r d e r to r e a c h t h e i r g o a l s or o b j e c t i v e s by t h e e n d of t h e c r i s i s . 2 . 1 . 3 C R I S I S S T R U C T U R E To r e p e a t , a c r i s i s h a s a l i f e - c y c l e . It b e g i n s , g r o w s , a n d d i e s . C r i s i s is a p h a s e a l o n g t h e c o n t i n u u m of a c o n f l i c t . But it d o e s n o t b r i n g o n e to its m a n a g e m e n t . It o n l y s h o w s t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t ha s r e a c h e d a s t a l e m a t e a n d it w i l l be r e s o l v e d e i t h e r by w a r or w i t h a c c e p t a b l e c o n c e s s i o n s by t h e p a r t i e s to t h e c o n f l i c t . C r i s i s h a s a t i m e s c a l e in t he o v e r a l l c o n f l i c t . T h e c o n f l i c t i n g i s s u e s do n ot a r i s e at o n c e . T h e p a r t i e s n e g o t i a t e in o r d e r to r e a c h a s e t t l e m e n t of t h e i r d i s p u t e , a n d d u r i n g t h e s e n e g o t i a t i o n s t h e y b a r g a i n in a c e r t a i n m a n n e r . A c o n f l i c t t u r n s o ut to be a c r i s i s w i t h t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of a c h a l l e n g e . T h e c h a l l e n g e is m o t i v a t e d by a p r e c i p i t a n t a t t e m p t . T h i s a t t e m p t g i v e s r i s e to a c h a n g e ;
it m a y c o n c e r n n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y , t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y or s i m i l a r f a c t o r s . T h i s is t h e n f o l l o w e d up to a r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t . T h i s r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t s t a n d s f or a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e r e is no m o r e a l t e r n a t i v e s of b a r g a i n i n g . T h i s is r e l a t e d to a d v e r s a r i e s ' r a n g e s of b a r g a i n i n g . T h e p a r t i e s r e a c h a p o i n t w h e r e t h e r e w o u l d be no m o r e c o n c e s s i o n s . (8) T h e r e s i s t a n c e p o i n t is t h i s p o i n t , a n d t he c o n f l i c t t u r n s i n t o a c r i s i s . So, c r i s e s in g e n e r a l f o l l o w t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n p r o c e s s . In t he c o m p l i c a t e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e n e g o t i a t o r s t r y to m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e v e n t s a n d r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c r i s i s . B e l l a r g u e s t h a t t i m e p r e s s u r e s , s t r e s s , a n d l a c k of c o m p l e t e i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e to d e c i s i o n m a k e r s d u r i n g c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s m a k e r a t i o n a l a n d c a l c u l a t e d d e c i s i o n s d i f f i c u l t . (9) W h i l e t h i s is t r u e , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of r e c o g n i z a b l e t o o l s or t e c h n i q u e s e n h a n c e s s t a t e s ' a b i l i t y to c o p e a n d m a n a g e c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s . B r e c h e r o u t l i n e s a n u m b e r of t o o l s a v a i l a b l e to t h i s end. T h e s e i n c l u d e , " v e r b a l , p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , n o n v i o l e n t m i l i t a r y a n d v i o l e n t " o n e s . (10) T h e o b j e c t i v e in t h e u s e of t h e s e t o o l s is to c o m m u n i c a t e a m e s s a g e of r e s o l v e a n d c o m m i t m e n t
to t h e a d v e r s a r y . Bell, u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t t e r m i n o l o g y , g r o u p s b o t h v e r b a l a n d n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i q u é s as ' s i g n a l s ' . (11) E x a m p l e s of s i g n a l s r a n g e f r o m d i p l o m a c y to s a n c t i o n s , the i n v o k i n g of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w a n d t h e m o v e m e n t of o n e ' s m i l i t a r y f o r c e s . T h e s e t o o l s , a s t a t e c h o o s e s r e f l e c t t he d e g r e e of s t a t e i n t e r e s t in t h e c r i s i s at h a n d . Is t h e i s s u e of v i t a l s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e to t h e s t a t e in q u e s t i o n ? To w h a t d e g r e e is it w i l l i n g to go in o r d e r to s e c u r e or p r e s e r v e its i n t e r e s t s ? Or is it an i s s u e in w h i c h it is w i l l i n g to m a k e c o n c e s s i o n s ? T h e s e a r e all q u e s t i o n s d e c i s i o n m a k e r s f a c e w h e n t h e y f o r m u l a t e a p o l i c y in r e s p o n s e to a c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n . T h e m a i n s t r e a m t r e n d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t v i e w s t h e a v o i d a n c e of w a r as t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l . Yet, in m a n y r e s p e c t s it is r e s t r i c t i v e in n a t u r e , as it n e c e s s i t a t e s t h a t b o t h or all p a r t i e s to c r i s i s p l a c e a h i g h v a l u e on t h e a v o i d a n c e of w a r . But b o t h g o i n g to w a r a n d r e a c h i n g an a g r e e m e n t m a k e up c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t .
2 . 2 . 1 . T H E I N T E R M E D I A R Y T h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e of t he t h e s i s is f o u n d i n t e r m e d i a r i e s ' . L i t t l e a t t e n t i o n ha s b e e n p a i d to t h i r d p a r t i e s as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , b e c a u s e m o d e r n t h e o r i e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h a v e e m e r g e d in r e s p o n s e to r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n s u p e r p o w e r s a n d t h e i r c o m p e t i t i o n for s p h e r e s of i n f l u e n c e . C h r i s t o p h e r M i t c h e l l e x p l a i n s t h e t e r m ' i n t e r m e d i a r i e s ' as t h i r d p a r t i e s t h a t i n t e r v e n e d i p l o m a t i c a l l y in a c o n f l i c t by t h e c o n s e n t of b o t h p a r t i e s w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of a c h i e v i n g s o m e c o m p r o m i s e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e i s s u e s at s t a k e b e t w e e n the p a r t i e s , or at l e a s t e n d i n g d i s r u p t i v e c o n f l i c t b e h a v i o r i n d u l g e d in by b o t h s i d e s . (12) I n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e c o m e s t r i k i n g l y a c t i v e w h e n t h e c o n t e x t is o t h e r t h a n s u p e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . T o d a y , s m a l l s t a t e s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d a v a r i e t y of t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c t o r s r e g u l a r l y i n t e r v e n e in c r i s e s . T h e y do n o t c h a n g e t h e b a l a n c e of p o w e r n o r do t h e y i m p o s e s o l u t i o n s , b ut t h e y do i n t e r v e n e to c h a n g e s t a t e a f f a i r s . W h a t m a y be m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g is t h a t i n t e r m e d i a r i e s m u s t g a i n p a r t i e s ' a c c e p t a n c e or c o n s e n t . S e c o n d , 2 . 2 I N T E R M E D I A R I E S AS A T H I R D P A R T Y
i n f l u e n c e by i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , l a r g e or s m a l l , s t a t e or n o n - s t a t e , e n t a i l s m o r e s u b t l e p r o c e s s e s t h a n t he u s e of t h r e a t or f o r c e . It m a y i n v o l v e o f f e r s of a i d or s i m p l y t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of d e c i s i o n s a b o u t n e g o t i a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . (13) 2 . 2 . 2 N E G O T I A T I O N BY A N I N T E R M E D I A R Y A n i n t e r m e d i a r y ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as on e of t h e m a i n f o r m s of n e g o t i a t i o n . S o m e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e d i r e c t a n d b i l a t e r a l . O t h e r s a r e m u l t i l a t e r a l w h e r e o n e m e m b e r ' m e d i a t e s ' in t h e s e n s e of b r i n g i n g t h e o t h e r s t o g e t h e r to f o r m a c o a l i t i o n . In s u c h c o a l i t i o n b a r g a i n i n g , al l p a r t i e s in m u l t i l a t e r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e p o t e n t i a l m e d i a t o r s , b u t t h e y a r e n e i t h e r "in b e t w e e n " n o r i n t e r m e d i a r i e s . (14) B r i e f l y , i n t e r m e d i a r i e s a r e a c t o r s w i t h i n c e n t i v e s to get i n v o l v e d , b u t w i t h o u t d i r e c t i n t e r e s t s in t h e d i s p u t e d i s s u e s . T h e y m a y p r o v i d e j u s t e n o u g h i n c e n t i v e s to s e t t l e t h e d i s p u t e or, to p ut it m o r e s u b t l y , j u s t e n o u g h c h a n g e in p e r c e p t i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s to t i p t h e b a l a n c e f r o m a c o n t e n t i o u s to a c o o p e r a t i v e
a p p r o a c h to r e s o l v e t he d i s p u t e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e t h e y m a k e is not so m u c h b e t w e e n w h o w i n s a n d w h o l o s e s or h o w m u c h is g a i n e d a n d lo s t , r a t h e r , it is b e t w e e n s e t t l i n g e a r l y r a t h e r t h a n l a t e or b e t w e e n t r y i n g o n e m o r e r o u n d at t he n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e r a t h e r t h a n i n i t i a t i n g h o s t i l i t i e s or b e t w e e n s e a r c h i n g for t h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r s for n e g o t i a t i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n g e t t i n g t i e d up w i t h t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s of n e g o t i a t i o n s . W h e n t he s e t t l e m e n t of a c o n f l i c t m o v e s b e t w e e n v i o l e n t a n d p e a c e f u l , a n d w h e n t h e s e t t l e m e n t of a c o n f l i c t m o v e s f r o m s e e m i n g l y m i n o r q u e s t i o n s of p r o c e d u r e a n d s a v i n g face, i n t e r m e d i a r i e s c a n p u s h t h e p a r t i e s t o w a r d c o n c i l i a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s s o m e t i m e s g e n t l y a n d u n o b t r u s i v e l y , s o m e t i m e s w i t h c o n c r e t e i n d u c e m e n t s . 2 . 2 . 3 I N T E R E S T T H E T Y P E S OF A N I N T E R M E D I A R Y T h e i n t e r m e d i a r y c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d by e x a m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e of its i n t e r e s t s P r i n c e n h a s i d e n t i f i e d t w o t y p e s of i n t e r m e d i a r i e s d e p e n d i n g on t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . If th e i n t e r m e d i a r y h a s no i n t e r e s t w h a t s o e v e r in t h e d i s p u t e d i s s u e s - d i r e c t or
b u t s i m p l y w a n t s to f a c i l i t a t e an a g r e e m e n t , it is a " n e u t r a l m e d i a t o r " . If the i n t e r m e d i a r y h as no d i r e c t i n t e r e s t in t h e i s s u e b u t d o e s h a v e i n d i r e c t i n t e r e s t s , l i k e s e c u r i t y c o n c e r n s in t h e r e g i o n , it is a " p r i n c i p a l m e d i a t o r " a n d it a l s o h as t h e r e s o u r c e s to b r i n g to b e a r . (15) U n i t e d N a t i o n s , w h i c h is t h e f o c u s of t h i s s t u d y , by b e i n g an i n t e r m e d i a r y p a r t y to r e s o l v e t h e c o n f l i c t of C y p r u s , is a " p r i n c i p a l m e d i a t o r " . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s m a j o r p u r p o s e s a r e s t a t e d in A r t i c l e 1 of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r as f o l l o w s : To m a i n t a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y . .. a n d to b r i n g a b o u t by p e a c e f u l m e a n s a n d in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, a d j u s t m e n t or s e t t l e m e n t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e s or s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t l e a d to a b r e a c h of t he p e a c e . " (16) C h a p t e r VI, r e g a r d i n g " T h e P a c i f i c S e t t l e m e n t of D i s p u t e s " , o b l i g a t e s t he p a r t i e s to a c o n f l i c t or d i s p u t e " l i k e l y to e n d a n g e r . . . i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y " to s u b m i t it to s o m e p r o c e d u r e for p a c i f i c s e t t l e m e n t , w h e t h e r n e g o t i a t i o n , e n q u i r y , m e d i a t i o n , c o n c i l i a t i o n , a r b i t r a t i o n , j u d i c i a l s e t t l e m e n t , r e s o r t to s o m e r e g i o n a l a g e n c y , or a n y o t h e r
2 . 2 . 4 P R I N C I P A L M E D I A T O R F o r t h e p r i n c i p a l m e d i a t o r , the m a i n c o n c e r n of i n t e r v e n t i o n is t he p a y o f f s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o b j e c t i v e is to e n h a n c e i n c e n t i v e s for a g r e e m e n t . A p r i n c i p a l m e d i a t o r b a r g a i n s w i t h e a c h d i s p u t a n t on t h e i s s u e s in w h i c h it h a s i n d i r e c t i n t e r e s t s , t h a t is, i n d i r e c t to t h e d i s p u t a n t ' s o r i g i n a l l y d i s p u t e d i s s u e s . At l e a s t t h r e e b a r g a i n i n g d y n a m i c s a r e p o s s i b l e : F i r s t , the m e d i a t o r c a n b a r g a i n d i r e c t l y w i t h a d i s p u t a n t to s t r i k e a s i d e d e a l . S e c o n d , it c an f o r m a c o a l i t i o n w i t h o n e d i s p u t a n t to c o m p e l a c o n c e s s i o n f r o m t he o t h e r d i s p u t a n t . F i n a l l y , it c a n c r e a t e a t h r e e - w a y c i r c u l a r b a r g a i n i n g in w h i c h t h e m e d i a t o r m a k e s a d e a l w i t h o n e d i s p u t a n t , w h o m a k e s a d e a l w i t h t h e m e d i a t o r to c o m p l e t e t h e c i r c l e . O n e e f f e c t on th e d i s p u t a n t s is to e x p a n d a g r e e m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s . In t he end, t h e o r i g i n a l d i s p u t e m a y be s e t t l e d a l m o s t as a b y - p r o d u c t of t h e s e v a r i o u s b a r g a i n i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s . 2 . 2 . 5 B A R G A I N I N G S T R U C T U R E OF A P R I N C I P A L M E D I A T O R T h e p r i n c i p a l m e d i a t o r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n , f u n d a m e n t a l l y c h a n g e s t h e b a r g a i n i n g d y n a m i c s
a n d s t r u c t u r e . T h e b a r g a i n i n g is no l o n g e r d i r e c t a n d b i l a t e r a l , b ut it is a t h r e e - w a y b a r g a i n i n g , b e c a u s e t he m e d i a t o r is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t he d y n a m i c s of s i d e d e a l s , c o a l i t i o n s , a n d c i r c u l a r d e a l - m a k i n g , w h e r e b y t h e d i s p u t a n t s ' b i l a t e r a l n e g o t i a t i o n b e c o m e s s e c o n d a r y . Of c o u r s e , p a r t of w h a t is at s t a k e in t h e t wo p a r a l l e l b a r g a i n i n g w i t h the m e d i a t o r is t he i s s u e s in d i s p u t e b e t w e e n t h e o r i g i n a l d i s p u t a n t s . H o w e v e r t h e f o c u s of t h e b a r g a i n i n g , a n d t he c h a r a c t e r of i n t e r a c t i o n , s h i f t s f r o m d i r e c t b i l a t e r a l b a r g a i n i n g ( b e t w e e n d i s p u t a n t s ) to p a r a l l e l b i l a t e r a l b a r g a i n i n g a n d c i r c u l a r t h r e e - w a y b a r g a i n i n g ( a m o n g d i s p u t a n t s a n d m e d i a t o r ) . M u c h of t h e b a r g a i n i n g on t h e o r i g i n a l d i s p u t e t h u s b e c o m e s i n d i r e c t b a r g a i n i n g t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t o r . T h e r e f o r e , o n e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s k i n d of i n t e r v e n t i o n is t h a t it d e t r a c t s f r o m t h e d i s p u t a n t s ' d i r e c t i n t e r a c t i o n s . (18) 2 . 2 . 6 A C T I O N S A N D B A R G A I N I N G S T R A T E G Y OF T H E P R I N C I P A L M E D I A T O R M e d i a t o r ' s r o l e a n d t a s k s a r e e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x , a n d t h e m e d i a t o r ' s i n i t i a t i v e s a n d b a r g a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m c a s e to
c a s e . I n t e r v e n t i o n r a n g e s f r o m p a s s i n g m e s s a g e s b e t w e e n th e p a r t i e s to a c t i v e e n g a g e m e n t in th e b a r g a i n i n g a n d a t t e m p t s to p l a c e p r e s s u r e on t h e a n t a g o n i s t s to a c c e p t p e a c e p r o p o s a l s t h a t t h e m e d i a t o r h a s f o r m u l a t e d . T h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e t h i r d p a r t y m a y t h u s v a r y a l o n g s e v e r a l d i m e n s i o n s , s u c h as f o r m a 1 i t y - i n f o r m a 1 i t y , e x t e n s i v e n e s s of r e s o u r c e s c o m m i t t e d , d i r e c t n e s s of p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o b a r g a i n i n g , a n d t he i d e n t i t y of t h e c o n f l i c t . Y o u n g , f i r s t l i s t s m e d i a t o r ' s a c t i o n s , t a k e n to h e l p t h e o p p o n e n t s b e g i n or c o n t i n u e b i l a t e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s , or to h e l p i m p l e m e n t a n y a g r e e m e n t s a l r e a d y r e a c h e d . H e r e , th e i n t e r m e d i a r y d o e s n o t b e c o m e i n v o l v e d in t h e e s s e n t i a l b a r g a i n i n g . T h e l i s t i n c l u d e s ' g o o d o f f i c e s ' , ' d a t a s o u r c e ' , ' i n t e r p o s i t i o n ' , a n d ' s u p e r v i s i o n ' . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h i s s t u d y , ' g o o d o f f i c e s m i s s i o n ' , w h i c h is t h e r o l e t h a t U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a 1 a p p o i n t e d to t he C y p r u s i s s u e by t h e U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . S e c o n d , Y o u n g l i s t s t he b a r g a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s t h a t a m e d i a t o r a d o p t s , w h i c h are: ' p e r s u a s i o n ' , ' e n u n c i a t i o n ' , ' e l a b o r a t i o n a n d i n i t i a t i o n ' a n d ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' . A g a i n for o u r p u r p o s e s , we s h a l l d i s c u s s ' e l a b o r a t i o n a n d i n i t i a t i o n ' as a
b a r g a i n i n g s t r a t e g y . T h a t is, o n e is for p r o v i d i n g a g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l , then, f or t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h i s e s t a b l i s h e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e a i m of t h i s s t r a t e g y is to r e a c h q u a l i f i e d c o n c e s s i o n s . 2 . 2 . 7 B A R G A I N I N G R A N G E W h e n t he b a r g a i n i n g r a n g e , w h i c h is th e set of a g r e e m e n t p o i n t s t h a t b o t h s i d e s p r e f e r o v e r t h e i r n o - a g r e e m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s is m a r k e d l y s k e w e d t o w a r d t he m o r e p o w e r f u l d i s p u t a n t , t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y is i n c l i n e d to r e c t i f y the i m b a l a n c e a n d to p r o p o s e a s o l u t i o n t h a t is " f a i r " . H o w e v e r , a f a i r s o l u t i o n f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of th e s t a t u s q u o is l i k e l y to be d i f f e r e n t f r o m a f a i r s o l u t i o n f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of r e s e r v a t i o n v a l u e s , i.e. t h e v a l u e s f or w h i c h b a r g a i n i n g is i m p o s s i b l e . If t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y c h o o s e s a s t a t u s q u o b a s e d on t h e f a i r n e s s p r i n c i p l e , th e s o l u t i o n may, in fact, be l e s s t h a n t h e p o w e r f u l s i d e ' s r e s e r v a t i o n v a l u e . F e a r i n g s u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y , at l e a s t i n t u i t i v e l y , t h e p o w e r f u l d i s p u t a n t m a y r e s i s t an i n t e r v e n t i o n a l t o g e t h e r .
A f a i r s o l u t i o n s u g g e s t e d by an i n t e r m e d i a r y c a n t h u s t h w a r t a c c e p t a n c e . T h e p o w e r f u l d i s p u t a n t , a w a r e of t h i s d i l e m m a , m a y t r y to c o n v i n c e the i n t e r m e d i a r y of its t r u e r e s e r v a t i o n v a l u e t h a t is t h e v a l u e of e a c h p a r t y ' s no a g r e e m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e . In e s s e n c e , t h e m e d i a t o r t r i e s e s p e c i a l l y to c o n v e r t the b a r g a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e f r o m a w i n - l o s e p o s i t i o n to a w i n - w i n p o s i t i o n . A c c e p t a n c e m a y a l s o be f a c i l i t a t e d if t h e d i s p u t a n t c h o o s e s an i n t e r v e n e r w i t h a d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t e r e s t in s i m p l y g e t t i n g an a g r e e m e n t , n ot n e c e s s a r i l y o n e c o m m i t t e d to g e t t i n g a f a i r a g r e e m e n t . A h i g h - p r o f i l e i n t e r v e n e r , o n e in n e e d of p u b l i c s u c c e s s , m a y be b e t t e r , in t h i s case, for b o t h d i s p u t a n t ' s a n d an e q u i t y -or e f f i c i e n c y - o r i e n t e d i nt e r v e n o r .
C H A P T E R III. C R I S I S E V A L U A T I O N OF T H E 1 974 C Y P R U S 3 . 1 B A C K G R O U N D TO T H E 1 9 7 4 C Y P R U S C R I S I S T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s s t a r t e d b e t w e e n Tu r k e y a n d G r e e c e as a r e s u l t of t he f a i l u r e of t h e G r e e k G o v e r n m e n t . T h e G r e e k s i d e w a s u n a b l e to a c q u i r e a d e c i s i o n r e g a r d i n g o n e - s i d e d s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n r i g h t ( m e a n i n g e n o s i s ) f r o m t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . T u r k e y , c e r t a i n l y , w a s v e r y d e c i s i v e on g i v i n g s u p p o r t to T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . T h e T u r k i s h s i d e w a s c l a i m i n g e q u a l c o m m u n a l r i g h t s f or t h e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s l i v i n g on t he i s l a n d . In F e b r u a r y 1959, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of T u r k e y , G r e e c e a n d t h e t w o C y p r i o t c o m m u n i t i e s m e t w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t in L o n d o n . T h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t a g r e e d to t r a n s f e r t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e i s l a n d to t he T u r k i s h a n d G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s of C y p r u s u n d e r p a r t n e r s h i p t e r m s w h i c h t h e s e t w o e t h n i c c o m m u n i t i e s , T u r k e y , a n d G r e e c e h a d a g r e e d u p o n .
T h e a g r e e m e n t m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e r e is no C y p r i o t n a t i o n a n d C y p r i o t T u r k s a n d G r e e k s h a d a l w a y s l i v e d a n d p r o s p e r e d as t w o i n d e p e n d e n t e t h n i c c o m m u n i t i e s ; a l w a y s j e a l o u s l y g u a r d i n g t h e i r n a t i o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t y w i t h s e p a r a t e l a n g u a g e s , c u s t o m s , c u l t u r e , h i s t o r i c a l h e r i t a g e a n d r e l i g i o n . (2) T h e c o m p r o m i s e s o l u t i o n of t h e Z u r i c h a n d L o n d o n A g r e e m e n t s , w a s r e a c h e d on t h e b a s i s of a b i - n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , r e s t i n g on p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p a r t n e r s h i p of th e t wo c o m m u n i t i e s , w h o w e r e g i v e n f u l l a u t o n o m y in w h a t w e r e s t r i c t l y d e f i n e d as c o m m u n a l a f f a i r s . T h e s e t t l e m e n t t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d w a s to be g u a r a n t e e d by T u r k e y , G r e e c e , a n d B r i t a i n , t h u s e n s u r i n g the p e r m a n e n c e of t he C y p r u s R e p u b l i c a n d a s s u r i n g b o t h s i d e s t h a t p e a c e w o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d on t h e i s l a n d . (3) T h i s f r a m e w o r k ha s m u l t i p l e d i m e n s i o n s . F i r s t , a C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o p o s e d " f u n c t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n " . S e c o n d , a t r e a t y of G u a r a n t e e g u a r a n t e e d t h e s i t u a t i o n c a u s e d by t h e a r t i c l e s of t h i s t r e a t y . T h i r d , T r e a t y of E s t a b l i s h m e n t l e f t t w o s o v e r e i g n m i l i t a r y b a s e s to E n g l a n d . And, f o u r t h . T r e a t y of A l l i a n c e p r o v i d e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of G r e e k a n d T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y
c o n t i n g e n t s on C y p r u s . On A u g u s t 16, 1960 the C y p r u s R e p u b l i c w a s o f f i c i a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e a r r a n g e m e n t s of 1 9 6 0 a i m e d at a d o m e s t i c b a l a n c e w i t h a f u n c t i o n a l p a r t n e r s h i p b e t w e e n t he t wo c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e C y p r u s R e p u b l i c , e s t a b l i s h e d by the T r e a t y , w a s a c c e p t e d t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t , it w a s a g r e e d not to h a v e a n y c h a n g e s in m a j o r p r i n c i p l e s . But by t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n c a u s e d by t h e G r e e k C y p r i o t v i o l a t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m e a s u r e s , t h e " T r e a t y of E s t a b l i s h m e n t " b e c a m e i n v a l i d s i n c e 1 9 6 0 . S i n c e then, t he b a l a n c e h a s b e e n e n s u r e d t h r o u g h t h e g u a r a n t o r s h i p of G r e e c e , T u r k e y , a n d E n g l a n d . T u r k e y , in t h i s m a n n e r , p ut t h e w h o l e i s l a n d u n d e r g u a r a n t e e i n c l u d i n g t h e E n g l i s h s o v e r e i g n b a s e s of A g r a t u r a n d D i k e l y a . G r e e c e h a d u s e d its g u a r a n t o r s h i p r i g h t in a n e g a t i v e m a n n e r by p u r s u i n g ' E n o s i s ' . T hus, E n g l a n d h a d v i s u a l i z e d its g u a r a n t o r r i g h t not as an o b l i g a t i o n , b u t o n l y as a r i g h t by s t a y i n g s i l e n t in t he f a c e of t h e G r e e k C y p r i o t t e r r o r i s m . In r e s p o n s e to this, t h e T u r k i s h s i d e h a s p r o v i d e d p e a c e a n d s t a b i l i t y on t h e i s l a n d d e t e r m i n e d by its r i g h t of
p l a n n e d t h a t G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y w i l l not r e a c h an a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n o v e r e a c h o t h e r . In t h e l i g h t of this, for e x a m p l e , it w a s a c c e p t e d in t h e s e y e a r s that, C y p r u s c o u l d not be a m e m b e r of t he E u r o p e a n U n i o n u n l e s s T u r k e y b e c o m e s a m e m b e r . T h e G r e e k C y p r i o t s i d e s e e m e d to h a v e no i n t e n t i o n of a l l o w i n g th e r e s u l t a n t C o n s t i t u t i o n to p e r s i s t . T h e c a m p a i g n for E n o s i s w a s f u r t h e r i n t e n s i f i e d , a n d G r e e k C y p r i o t l e a d e r M a k a r i o s m a d e no s e c r e t of h i s i n t e n t i o n to a m e n d t he C o n s t i t u t i o n at a n y c o s t . M a n y of t he 196 0 C o n s t i t u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s t h a t p r o t e c t e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s ' r i g h t s of p a r t n e r s h i p , w e r e not b e i n g a d o p t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t he T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w e r e n ot e m p l o y e d at a r a t e of 30%. T h e a p p o i n t m e n t s to f o r e i g n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w e r e n ot e i t h e r m a d e a f t e r r e a c h i n g an a g r e e m e n t w i t h t he v i c e - p r e s i d e n t , w h o w a s T u r k i s h . In a d d i t i o n , t h e E O K A m e m b e r s w e r e a l l o w e d to a t t e n d b o t h t he C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s a n d p u b l i c s t a f f . T h e C y p r u s a r m y w h i c h w o u l d be c o m p o s e d of 2 0 0 0 0 t r o o p s in w h i c h t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e at a r a t e of %40 w a s n e v e r e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e p r i n c i p l e s of th e C o n s t i t u t i o n r e l a t e d to t h e d i f f e r e n t m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t
of t h i s d e c i s i o n by M a k a r i o s w a s n e v e r r e a l i z e d . T h e s e c an be c o u n t e d as m a j o r e X a m p 1 e s . M a k a r i o s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e Z u r i c h a n d L o n d o n A g r e e m e n t s h a d g i v e n r i g h t s b e y o n d a j u s t i f i a b l e e n d to t he T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , a n d a r g u e d t h a t t he 1960 C o n s t i t u t i o n w a s n o t w o r k i n g a n y m o r e . On 30 N o v e m b e r 1 9 63, M a k a r i o s c o n f r o n t e d t he T u r k i s h w i n g of t h e C y p r u s g o v e r n m e n t w i t h a p r o p o s a l for t h i r t e e n a m e n d m e n t s , w h i c h he m u s t h a v e k n o w n in a d v a n c e w o u l d n ot be a c c e p t e d . S e v e n o ut of t h e s e a r t i c l e s , w e r e s e e k i n g t he a m e n d m e n t of t h e u n c h a n g e a b l e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s s u c h as a l t e r i n g t he 4 0 - 6 0 r a t i o in t he C y p r i o t a r m y . T h e s e a m e n d m e n t s w e r e r e j e c t e d by t h e T u r k i s h s i d e on 16 D e c e m b e r 1963. On 21 D e c e m b e r 1963, A r c h b i s h o p M a k a r i o s a u t h o r i z e d t h e f o r m a t i o n of a m i l i t i a to c a r r y o u t a p l a n n e d p r o g r a m of a c t i o n k n o w n as t h e ' A k r i t a s P l a n ' . As a r e s u l t , 3 0 0 0 0 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w e r e f o r c e d to l e a v e t h e i r v i l l a g e s w h i c h n u m b e r e d 103. T h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w e r e l i v i n g w i t h i n e n c l a v e s c o v e r i n g 3% of t h e i s l a n d . T h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , l i v i n g w i t h i n e n c l a v e s o v e r
e c o n o m i c b l o c k a d e a p p l i e d by t h e G r e e k C y p r i o t s s u p p o r t e d by f o r e i g n p o w e r s , a n d t h e v i o l a t i o n of h u m a n r i g h t s by the G r e e k C y p r i o t m i l i t i a . T h e a r r i v a l of the U n i t e d N a t i o n s P e a c e K e e p i n g F o r c e on t he i s l a n d in t h e f i r s t h a l f of 1964, d i d n o t c h a n g e the s i t u a t i o n . G r e e c e s e c r e t l y s e n t 2 0 . 0 0 0 t r o o p s to t h e i s l a n d . T h i s c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d t he s t r u c t u r e of t he C y p r u s R e p u b l i c ; it t u r n e d to be a G r e e k C y p r i o t R e p u b l i c r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g a R e p u b l i c b a s e d on T u r k i s h - G r e e k C y p r i o t p a r t n e r s h i p . T h e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e s e p a r a t e d . T h e s e w e r e g i v e n an e n d t h r o u g h a l i m i t e d o p e r a t i o n by T u r k e y in 1964. T u r k e y a l s o s t a r t e d to g i v e s u p p o r t for t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of T u r k M u c a h i t T e s k i l a t i (TMT- T u r k i s h c o u n t e r p a r t of the EOKA) at t h a t t i m e a n d it a l s o s u p p o r t e d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t G o v e r n m e n t f i n a n c i a l l y . T h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s of K o p h i n o u ( G e c i t k a l e ) a n d A y i o s T h e o d o r o s ( B o ğ a z i ç i ) w e r e a t t a c k e d by 2 0 . 0 0 0 m e n f r o m m a i n l a n d G r e e c e . T h i s b r o u g h t T u r k e y a n d G r e e c e to th e b r i n k of w a r a n d T u r k e y ' s d e c i s i v e n e s s on u s i n g its g u a r a n t o r r i g h t l e d t h e G r e e k s to w i t h d r a w t h e i r t r o o p s f r o m t h e i s l a n d .
3 .2 E V A L U A T I O N OF T H E C R I S I S P E R I O D 3 . 2 . 1 P R E - C R I S I S P E R I O D : J U L Y 15- J U L Y 19 19 7 4 On J u l y 2 1974, M a k a r i o s s e n t to G r e e k P r e s i d e n t G e n e r a l P h a i d o n G i z i k i s a n d set f r e e to p r e s s a h a r s h a n d p r o v o c a t i v e l e t t e r a c c u s i n g t h e j u n t a of m a s t e r m i n d i n g t h e c a m p a i g n of t e r r o r in C y p r u s . He w r o t e ; "Mr. P r e s i d e n t , W i t h d e e p s o r r o w I am o b l i g e d to b r i n g to y o u r a t t e n t i o n c e r t a i n u n a c c e p t a b l e i n c i d e n t s a n d s i t u a t i o n s in C y p r u s for w h i c h I c o n s i d e r the G r e e k G o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n s i b l e . " M a k a r i o s t h e n s t a r t e d to l i s t c e r t a i n a c c u s a t i o n s ; a. t h e G r e e k g o v e r n m e n t h a d s e n t G r i v a s to C y p r u s to o r g a n i z e E O K A - B , b. t he G r e e k - o f f i c e r e d N a t i o n a l G u a r d s u p p o r t e d E O K A - B w i t h m e n a n d s u p p l i e s , c. t h e m i l i t a r y c a m p s w e r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r o - E O K A p o s t e r s , d. t he a n t i - g o V e r n m e n t p r e s s in C y p r u s w a s f i n a n c e d a n d g u i d e d by t h e G r e e k C . I . A . , e. the m a s t e r m i n d b e h i n d t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s w i t h i n the G r e e k r e g i m e i t s e l f , f . th e r e b e l l i o n of the G r e e k C y p r i o t b i s h o p s w a s a r e s u l t of e n c o u r a g e m e n t by the G r e e k g o v e r n m e n t .
g. t he l e a d e r s h i p of the N a t i o n a l G u a r d , on i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m A t h e n s i g n o r e d the l e g i t i m a t e d e m a n d of t h e C y p r u s g o v e r n m e n t to a p p r o v e t h e l i s t of p r o s p e c t i v e r e c r u i t s for o f f i c e r t r a i n i n g , h. t he N a t i o n a l G u a r d w a s an o r g a n of t he C y p r i o t S t a t e a n d s h o u l d not be a r b i t r a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by t he A t h e n s G o v e r n m e n t , i. th e o n l y s o l u t i o n to t h i s u n a c c e p t a b l e s i t u a t i o n w a s t h a t all of t h e 6 5 0 G r e e k o f f i c e r s l e a v e C y p r u s . M a k a r i o s e n d e d h is l e t t e r by s t r e s s i n g t h a t he h a d no i n t e n t i o n of d i s r u p t i n g c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k a n d C y p r u s G o v e r n m e n t s , b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e he r e m i n d e d t he G r e e k G o v e r n m e n t , as he p ut it, that, "I am not an a p p o i n t e d p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r of G r e e c e bu t an e l e c t e d l e a d e r of a l a r g e p a r t of H e l l e n i s m a n d I d e m a n d an a n a l o g o u s t r e a t m e n t by t h e ' N a t i o n a l C e n t e r ' . " W h a t M a k a r i o s w a s e x p e c t i n g in r e s p o n s e to t h i s l e t t e r w a s t h a t t he l o a n n i d e s r e g i m e w o u l d g i v e in to h i s d e m a n d s . P e r h a p s , he e v e n h o p e d to f o r c e it out of o f f i c e , t h e r e b y he w o u l d not o n l y s a v e h is p o l i t i c a l l i f e b u t a l s o he w o u l d r i d t h e G r e e k s of a h a t e d t y r a n n y . But the J u n t a t o o k on t h e c h a l l e n g e . It o r d e r e d t h e N a t i o n a l G u a r d to s e i z e p o w e r a n d k i l l M a k a r i o s .
On 15 J u l y 1 974, t he T u r k i s h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y r e c e i v e d a n o t e f r o m t h e T u r k i s h E m b a s s y in N i c o s i a a r o u n d 8 . 3 0 a.m., i n f o r m i n g t h a t ; "it h a s b e e n l e a r n t t h a t a c o u p d ' é t a t h a s b e e n i n i t i a t e d a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s . " T h i s w a s n ot an e x p e c t e d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t w a s i m m e d i a t e l y i n f o r m e d a b o u t the d e v e l o p m e n t . By t h a t time, t h e y got a n o t h e r t e l e g r a m i n f o r m i n g t he d e a t h of M a k a r i o s . T h e T u r k i s h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y w a s a l r e a d y u n e a s y a f t e r t he l e t t e r s e n t to G i z i k i s f r o m M a k a r i o s on J u l y 2, 1974. It s e n s e d t h a t t h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g g o i n g w r o n g b e t w e e n t he j u n t a a n d M a k a r i o s . In t h e a f t e r n o o n of the s a m e day, t he E O K A k i l l e r N i k o s S a m p s o n w a s i n s t a l l e d as ' P r e s i d e n t ' in M a k a r i o s ' s p l a c e . T h e n e w s t h a t M a k a r i o s w a s s t i l l a l i v e w a s c o n f i r m e d . S a m p s o n w a s p u r e l y ' E n o s i s t ' . T h e T u r k i s h C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s m e t at 1 9 : 3 0 p.m . t h a t d a y a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t m e n t i o n e d at h i s s p e e c h t hat;
A r t i c l e 4 of t he G u a r a n t o r A g r e e m e n t w h i c h w a s d e s i g n e d for t he i n d e p e n d e n c e of C y p r u s m u s t s t a r t to r un a n d t h e n e w l e a d e r S a m p s o n m u s t be o v e r t h r o w n . T h e T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s ' e x i s t e n c e on the i s l a n d is n e c e s s a r y . We c a n o n l y p r o t e c t T u r k e y ' s a n d T u r k i s h - C y p r i o t s ' i n t e r e s t s in t h i s way. T h e p r e p a r a t i o n s for t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n m u s t s t a r t . By t h i s time, we s h o u l d t a l k w i t h t he o t h e r G u a r a n t o r S t a t e E n g l a n d , to s o l v e t he c r i s i s w i t h o u t f i g h t i n g . If we a r e n ot a b l e to get a s a t i s f a c t o r y a n s w e r f r o m the o t h e r G u a r a n t o r S t a t e - E n g l a n d - t h e n we w i l l c o m p l e t e all th e p r e p a r a t i o n s to i n t e r v e n e in C y p r u s . By t he e n d of t h i s m e e t i n g , t h e C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s , g a v e P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t " f u l l a u t h o r i t y " in t h i s c r i s i s . P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t w a s to t ry e v e r y m e a n s to p e r s u a d e E n g l a n d to s i d e w i t h T u r k e y b o t h p o l i t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y , b ut he k n e w t h a t E n g l a n d w o u l d n ot a c c e p t s u c h a p o l i c y . Thus, t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t a n d t he G e n e r a l S t a f f of t h e T u r k i s h A r m y h a d all a g r e e d t h a t J u l y 20, 1 9 7 4 - S a t u r d a y w a s e x a c t l y t h e ' I n t e r v e n t i o n Day' . T h e S e c r e t a r y of U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a -K i s s i n g e r w a s p u r s u i n g a p o l i c y of ' w a i t a n d -see' . K i s s i n g e r w a s not r e f e r r i n g to M a k a r i o s ' s g o v e r n m e n t b ut he w a s w a i t i n g for t h e S a m p s o n g o v e r n m e n t to r e p l a c e him. T u r k i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t p e r c e i v e d t h i s s t r a t e g y
as; if t h e y l o s e time, A m e r i c a w o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e S a m p s o n g o v e r n m e n t . T u r k i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t d e c i d e d t h a t h i s s t r a t e g y w o u l d be to go to E n g l a n d to p e r s u a d e t h e m to j o i n T u r k e y in a m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n to p r e s e r v e t he i n d e p e n d e n c e of C y p r u s , u s i n g t h e i r r i g h t s a c c o r d i n g to t h e A r t i c l e 4 of t he G u a r a n t o r A g r e e m e n t . T h i s w o u l d s h o w h i s g o o d w i s h e s to s o l v e t he c r i s i s p e a c e f u l l y . A n d he w o u l d n ot m e n t i o n a n y w o r d of t h e p l a n s of th e ' T u r k i s h P e a c e O p e r a t i o n ' . E n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t m a d e a n o t i c e t h a t t h e y w o u l d w e l c o m e T u r k i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r , b u t t h e y d i d n o t s p e c i f y a t i m e . T h e y s a i d t h a t t h e y v e r y w e l l u n d e r s t o o d T u r k e y ' s p o i n t of v i e w in t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e c r i s i s a n d for t h a t r e a s o n t h e y p u t p r e s s u r e on A t h e n s . T h e s a m e d a y a s h i p l e f t f r o m G r e e c e P i r a e u s , c a r r y i n g 650 o f f i c i a l s to C y p r u s a n d t h i s w o u l d mean, a c h a n g e in th e b a l a n c e of the f o r c e s . T h e E n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t w a s m a k i n g o f f e r s for t h e w i t h d r a w a l of th e t r o o p s of t h e J u n t a in C y p r u s . So, t h i s w o u l d d e f i n i t e l y e n d w i t h t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of t h e T u r k i s h G o v e r n m e n t . In t h e l i g h t of t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s . P r i m e
an i n v i t a t i o n . He m et E n g l i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r W i l s o n a n d E n g l i s h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r C a l l a g h a n . In t h i s m e e t i n g , T u r k i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t r e m i n d e d t h e m of the r i g h t of th e g u a r a n t o r s t a t e s u n d e r A r t i c l e 4 to p r e s e r v e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of C y p r u s . He a l s o e x p l a i n e d t h e m t h e n e e d for a T u r k i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d a s k e d for t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e E n g l i s h s i d e b e l i e v e d t h a t the c r i s i s c o u l d be s o l v e d t h r o u g h d i p l o m a t i c m e a n s - t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n s . E n g l i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r W i l s o n i n f o r m e d P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t t h a t t he s p e c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t he S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e , K i s s i n g e r , w a s r e q u e s t i n g a m e e t i n g w i t h him. T h i s a ct w a s an o p e n s i g n a l to e x p r e s s t h a t E n g l a n d d i d not w a n t to t a k e a n y p o s i t i o n or r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t he c r i s i s r a t h e r it p r e f e r r e d to be r e p l a c e d by U n i t e d S t a t e s of Arne r i c a . P r i m e Mini.ster E c e v i t m e t K i s s i n g e r ' s s p e c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e S i s c o at t he T u r k i s h E m b a s s y in L o n d o n . S i s c o r e q u e s t e d f r o m P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t to w r i t e d o w n T u r k e y ' s d e m a n d to e n d t h i s c r i s i s p e a c e f u l l y on an a g r e e a b l e b a s i s a n d he s a i d t h a t he w o u l d n e g o t i a t e t h e s e d e m a n d s by t h e A t h e n s g o v e r n m e n t .
T h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e m a n d s w e r e as f o l l o w s ; 1- T h e T u r k i s h t r o o p s e x i s t e n c e on the i s l a n d s h o u l d be a c c e p t e d for t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d s e c u r i t y of t h e T u r k i s h -C y p r i o t s . 2- S a m p s o n s h o u l d be i m m e d i a t e l y o v e r t h r o w n . 3- T h e T u r k i s h - C y p r i o t s s h o u l d be p e r m i t t e d to h a v e a l a n d w h i c h h a s t r a n s i t to sea. 4- A s e c u r i t y s y s t e m s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d for t h e a r r i v a l s a n d d e p a r t u r e s f r o m C y p r u s . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , t he T u r k i s h s i d e ' s d e m a n d s w e r e a i m e d to p r o v i d e e q u a l r i g h t s for t h e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s l i v i n g on t he i s l a n d , n a m e l y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a n d G r e e k C y p r i o t s . P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t r e t u r n e d to T u r k e y on 19 J u l y 1 9 7 4 a n d w e n t d i r e c t l y to t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f a n d r e c o n f i r m e d t h a t t he " P e a c e O p e r a t i o n " w o u l d s t a r t e a r l y n e x t m o r n i n g . T h a t is, T u r k i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r g a v e th e o r d e r fo r t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n to t h e i s l a n d to p r e s e r v e p e a c e , s e c u r i t y a n d o r d e r in t he i s l a n d . On t h e o t h e r side, t h i s act c o u l d r e v e a l a p r o b a b i l i t y of a w a r b e t w e e n G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y . T h e s p e c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of K i s s i n g e r
T u r k i s h d e m a n d s , bu t he w a s o n l y a b l e to s p e a k to l o a n n i d e s w h o d i d not b e l i e v e t h a t T u r k e y w o u l d i n t e r v e n e in C y p r u s . T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s d i d no t e n d s u c c e s s f u l l y for S i s c o . W h e n he c a m e to A n k a r a , he s a i d t h a t t he G r e e k g o v e r n m e n t a c c e p t e d to w i t h d r a w t he t r o o p s a t t e n d e d the c o u p by th e J u n t a a n d c o n t i n u e d t h a t t h e y m i g h t be h e l p f u l in t he o v e r t h r o w of S a m p s o n . He a l s o s a i d t h a t e l e c t i o n s w o u l d be m a d e on t he i s l a n d w i t h i n o n e y e a r a n d n o t h i n g w o u l d h a p p e n to t he Tu r k i s h - Cy p r i o t s on t h e i s l a n d . T u r k i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t ' s r e s p o n s e to t h e s e a n s w e r s w a s v e r y c l e a r . He s a i d t h a t t h e y w o u l d t a k e t he d e a d b o d i e s a w a y a n d b r i n g l i v i n g o n e s to the i s l a n d a n d t h i s w i l l not be an a c c e p t a b l e a n d a g r e e a b l e s o l u t i o n . In r e s p o n s e to this, S i s c o i n c r e a s e d h i s p r e s s u r e on E c e v i t a n d b r o a d l y s a i d t h a t in c a s e of a T u r k i s h - G r e e k war, T u r k e y w o u l d be a l o n e . 3 - 2 . 2 M I D - C R I S I S P E R I O D : J U L Y 20 24, 1 9 7 4 J U L Y E a r l y in th e m o r n i n g of 20 J u l y 1 9 7 4 t h e ' P e a c e O p e r a t i o n ' s t a r t e d . At 0 6 . 1 0 a.m. P r i m e M i n i s t e r E c e v i t m a d e an a n n o u n c e m e n t f r o m t h e
r a d i o to t h e w o r l d , w o r d s ; He s a i d t h e f o l l o w i n g T h i s is not an i n v a s i o n , b u t an act a g a i n s t i n v a s i o n ; T h i s is not a g g r e s s i o n , b u t an act to e n d a g g r e s s i o n . We a r e t h e r e to h e l p you, not t o hu r t . We a r e t h e r e w i t h love, not h a t e . We a r e t h e r e not to f i g h t y o u b ut to e n d y o u r p l i g h t . At A n d t he ' P e a c e O p e r a t i o n ' s t a r t e d . 1 0 : 3 0 a .m . G r e e k F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r K i p r i o s , c a l l e d t h e A m b a s s a d o r of T u r k e y to A t h e n s , G u r u n . T h e G r e e k F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r f o r w a r d e d t h e f i r s t u l t i m a t u m to T u r k e y : I m m e d i a t e l y s t o p t he i n v a s i o n a n d w i t h d r a w y o u r s o l d i e r s f r o m t h e i s l a n d . We p e r m i t y o u t i l l 1 6 . 0 0 p.m. If it is n ot done, G r e e c e c an not be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f r o m the d e v e l o p m e n t s . G u r u n a n s w e r It is t oo l a te. T h e T u r k i s h A m b a s s a d o r to A t h e n s , g a v e a v e r y c l e a r a n d c o n c r e t e i m m e d i a t e l y . He s a i d that; ' Y o u s h o u l d h a v e t h o u g h t t h i s b e f o r e . Y o u r o f f e r s c a n n o t be m e t in 2 h o u r s or 2 d a y s . " T h e ' P e a c e O p e r a t i o n ' w a s c o n t i n u i n g , b u t t h e r e w a s a s u r p r i s e to t he T u r k i s h t r o o p s w h o l a n d e d on t h e i s l a n d . T h e y m e t w i t h a h e a v y u n e x p e c t e d o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e G r e e k - C y p x ' i o t s .
