al- Ç A R A W I Y Y I N — K A R A Y , R E F Ï K K B A U D
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in Fâs in October i960; (2) the Faculty of ArabicStudies, whose centre is at Marrâkaşh; (3) the Faculty of Theology ( Usui al-diri) created at Tatw ân; and (4) some institutes attached to it, of which the most im portant is the ddr al-hadith, at Rabat, which produces scholars in the Islamic sciences. Each faculty is directed by a dean, assisted by a deputy, both of them appointed by the Directorate of Higher Educa tion of the Ministry. The university at present (1972) comprises about a thousand students and each year grants an ever-increasing number of degrees ( n o in 1970). Each academic year also produces a generation of educated young people who find a place less and less easily in modern Morocco. The Moroccan Govern ment is not unaware of the problem, for which there is no easy and satisfactory solution.
Today, the university no longer functions at the foot of the pillars of the ancient mosque; it has been transferred to an old French barracks where the students no longer lead the mediaeval life of yester year. Meanwhile the professors, even the less aged, continue to teach in a traditional spirit and, conse quently, to form young people who do not move in the same atmosphere as their companions in modern education.
B ib lio g r a p h y : Apart from the sources given in the text and those which are to be found in the article f â s, see for further details: Marmol (16th century), De VAfrique, tr. d’Ablancourt, ii, Paris 1667; Badia y Leblich (cAli Bey), Voyages d'A li Bey el Abbassi en Afrique et l'A sie, 3 vols., Paris 1814 (see on Fâs, i, ch. viii); G. Delphin, Fas, son université et l'enseignement supérieur musulman, Paris 1889; A. Pérétié, Les madrasas de Fès, in A M , xviii (1912); P. Marty, Le Maroc de demain, Paris 1925, ch. i; L. Brunot, Le personnage de Bar abbas dans la fête du sultan des Tolba à Fès, in Mélanges Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Paris 1935; Leon T Africain (16th century), Description de l'Afrique, tr. A. Épaulard, Paris 1956, i; Diâmicat al-Karawiyyïn, al-Kitdb al-Dhahabï f ï dhikrdhd al-mFa bacd al-alf (245-1379/859-1960), Muham- m adiyya 1959, numerous articles of very unequal documentary value, and a bibliography of some European publications, especially in French (232- 4) ; R. Le Tourneau, Évolution politique de l'Afrique du Nord musulmane, 1920-1961, Paris 1962; J. J. Waardenburg, Les Universités dans le monde arabe actuel, The Hague 1966; Abd el-Hadi Tazi, Al. Qaraouiyyine, Beirut 1973 (in Arabie, with French summary).
iii.— Th e Li b r a r y
The library of al-Karawiyyïn is not situated within the mosque, but in an annex building. As the in scriptions preserved in the building itself and pub lished (R C E A , xvi, Nos. 6081-2) indicate, it was created in 750/1349 by the Marinid Sultan Abü cInàn Fâris [q.v.], and enlarged by the Sacdid Sultan Ahmad al-Manşür [q.v.].
Its richness, once famous, attracted to Fâs Euro pean scholars in search of ancient works. But in the 19th century it had fallen into a pitiable state of abandonment, dilapidation and pillage. The super vision of the library was in principle incumbent on the nakib [q.v.] of the university’s pious foundations, but he shifted the responsibility onto a student agreed by a higher authority. No catalogue or register of loans has been discovered, as in Marrâkaşh at the Library of the Mosque of Ibn Yusuf. Many borrowers must have neglected to return the works, to such an extent that at the beginning of the 20th century the number
was estimated at no more than 1600 manuscripts and 400 printed books. Some are very valuable or very rare, in particular the 5th volume of the Kitdb al míbar of Ibn Khaldûn. with a dedication in the famous historian’s own hand. There are also some volumes there bearing the acts of donation of certain Moroccan princes. The most ancient manuscripts date back a thousand years, and the most numerous of them result from gifts, in the form of habus, of the Sacdid Sultan Ahmad al-Manşür. The Karawiyyïn also received an important part of the library of the cAlawI Sultan Muhammad b. cAbd Allâh at the time when it was dispersed among the towns of Morocco.
In 1918, the catalogue was published and provoked a certain sense of disappointment, but, later, some valuable manuscripts were discovered in unlisted files. In the reign of Muhammad V the Library was enlarged and modernized, its administration remodel led, supervision of it reinforced and its departments enriched. Today it counts, in addition to very nume rous printed books, more than 4,000 manuscripts, and has resumed its activity and its secular role.
B ib lio g r a p h y : See the works of Pérétié, Marty, Le Tourneau and Ibn Zaydân, cited above; also A. Bel, Catalogue des livres arabes de la Biblio thèque de la Mosquée d'El-Qarouiyine à Fès, Fâs 1918; E. Lévy-Provençal, Note sur Vexemplaire du Kitdb al-Hbar offert par Ibn ffaldün à la Biblio thèque d'al-Qarawïyïn à Fès, in Hespéris (1923); H. P. J. Renaud, Un prétendu catalogue de la Bibliothèque de la Grande Mosquée de Fès daté de 1268/1851, in Hespéris (1934); G. Deverdun, Un registre d'inventaire et de prêts de la Bibliothèque de la Mosquée A li b. Youssef à Marrakech, daté de m i/ iy o o , in Hespéris (1944); J. Luccioni, Les bibliothèques habous au Maroc, in Bull. écon. et soc. du Maroc xix/66 (1955); cAbid al-Fâsï, Khizdnat al-Karawiyyïn wa-nawddiruhà, in R IM A i (1959)»
8-16. (G. De v e r d u n)
j/ KARAY, REFÏK KHÂLID (modem Turkish r e fİk h a l í t k a r a y), T u r k is h e s s a y is t , h u m o r is t and n o v e lis t (d. 1888/1965). He was born in Beylerbeyi on the Bosphorus, Istanbul. His father, Mehmed Khâlid of the Karakayîşh Oğullar! (later shortened to Karay by Refik Khâlid), was chief- treasurer at the Ministry of Finance. Trained at the Galatasaray lycée (1900-6), which he left before graduating, Karay became a clerk in a department of the Ministry of Finance and at the same time attended the school of law (Mekteb-i Hukuk) until the restoration of the Constitution in 1908; he then abandoned both job and study and became a journa list. After contributing to various papers, he founded in 1909 his own shortlived Son Hawddith. In the same year he joined the new literary group Fedfr-i Âtï (Dawn of the Future), formed for a brief period by the young generation of poets and writers, which was no more than the closing phase of the Therwet-i F ünün movement.
His real personality as a writer took shape in 1910 when he began to contribute, under the pen- name Kirpi (“ hedghog” ), to the humorous magazines Kalem and Diem, of which he soon became a leader writer. His powerful satirical essays, mixed with subtle humour, were written in a masterly style and were directed against the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, the party in power, and these immediately established his unchallenged reputation. Following the assassination of Grand Vizier Mahmud Shewket Paşha in June 1913, Refïk Khâlid, although he did not belong to any party and was not a militant, was arrested together with several hundred
opposi-636 K A R A Y , R E F İ K K B A U D tion “ suspects” and banished to Sinop, on the Black
Sea. T alcat Paşha himself, who had been the target of one of his ruthlessly sarcastic articles, included his name in the list of people “ to be punished” (R. H. Karay, Minelbab ilelmihrab, Istanbul 1964, 36). He spent the following five years in exile in Sinop, Çorum, Ankara and Bilecik, during which time he remained silent except for a few essays and short stories which were published, under the pen-name A ydede, in the Istanbul daily Peyam, and later, under his own name, in Gökalp’s famous Yeni Medjimüca.
On his return from exile towards the end of World War I, he contributed to the newspapers Zaman and Şabdh (of which he became later a leader writer). When in 1918 the war was lost and the Unionist leaders fled the country. Refik Khâlid’s satires against them and the committee baceme more vitriolic. He joined the Liberal Union Party [Hürriyet ve Ptilâf Firkasî) and became increasingly involved in the anti-Nationalist politics and activities of the Istanbul governments of the 1919-22 period. His many articles and satirical essays, in which he tried to discredit the resistance movement in Anatolia led by Mustafâ Kemâl Paşha, depicting it as a resurgence of Unionist ambitions, and his efforts to disrupt the telegraphic communications of the Nationalists while he was Director-General of Posts and Telegraph during the collaborationist governments of Dâmâd Ferld Paşha, made him persona non grata in the eyes of the Ankara government. His arrest and trial was one of the conditions put forward by the Nationalists for any compromise with the sultan’s government in October 1919 (S. Selek, Anadolu İhtilâli, Istanbul 1968, 304). Following the victory of the Nationalists in Anatolia in September 1922 and soon after the arrival in Istanbul of Re3fet Pasha (Bele) as their special representative, the writer and journalist CA1I Kemâl, a close friend and collaborator of Refik Khâlid, a leading opponent of the Nationalists and former Minister of the Interior, was kidnapped and murdered in Izmid on the way to his trial in Ankara (F. R. Atay, Çankaya2, Istanbul 1969, 341-42). On learning this, Refik Khâlid joined a group of leading members of the Liberal Union Party, most of whom had collabo rated with the army of occupation in Istanbul, and took refuge in the British Embassy. He was taken later to Taşhkîşhla barracks with other refugees, but managed to slip away from there and left Istanbul on a French ship on 9 November 1922. (Later he was included among the 150 “ undesirables” (Yüzellilikler) excepted from the amnesty provisions of the Lau sanne Treaty of 1923). He went to Djüniyya in the Lebanon where he wrote his political memoirs; their serialization in the Istanbul daily Akshdrn in 1924 caused a great furore and it was consequently sus pended. In the same year he moved from Djüniyya to Aleppo, where the editors of the Turkish news paper Doghru Yol invited him to work. He published his essays, short stories and articles in this paper and published his books in Aleppo, remaining there until the general amnesty of 1938 when he returned to Turkey. During the last 27 years of his life he lived in Istanbul, carefully avoiding politics, devoting all his time to contributing to many papers and maga zines and writing a great number of essays and sketches and many popular novels. He was the president of the Turkish P.E.N. club when he died in Istanbul on 13 July 1965.
As he confessed in a famous interview (Rüşhen Eşhref, Diyorlar ki, Istanbul 1334/1918, 247-59), Refik Khâlid was completely ignorant of classical Turkish literature and of the works of the mid-19th
century modernists (Tanzimat School). He avidly read everything the Therwet-i Fünün, his immediate pre decessors, published at the turn of the century. He admired their technique but rejected their French- inspired themes and characters and their artificial and precious style (excepting, however, some writings of Khâlid D iyâ3, Mehmed Ra5üf and IJüseyn Djâhid). Thus he started his epoch-making career from scratch. Apart from one or two forerunners at the end of the 19th century, he pioneered realism in the novel and short story and switched his attention from the over-exploited capital (Istanbul) to the Anatolian countryside; he specialized in subtle social and political satire without having recourse to gross and obscene language. He advocated and practised the use of spoken Turkish as a literary medium as early as 1909, i.e., before Ömer (cUmar) Seyf ed-Din and his as sociates inaugurated the movement of YcniLisdn (New Language) which aimed at the simplification of written Turkish. Refik Khâlid’s published works, numbering 37, can be divided into the following categories:
(1) H u m o ro u s and s a t i r i c a l e s s a y s , on incidents of everyday life, topical events or political personalities, which reveal his real personality. These have been put together in the following volumes: Kirpinin dedikleri (“ What the Hedgehog said” ), containing essays published between 1909-19, second enlarged edition, Istanbul 1336 (1920), in Roman script 1940; Tanıdıklarım (“ My Acquaintances” ), Istanbul 1335 (1919), in Roman script 1941; Sakın aldanma, inanma, kanma (“ Don’t be deceived, don’t believe, don’t be taken in” ), Istanbul 1335 (1919), in Roman script 1941 ; Agho Paşhanîn Khdtlralarl (“ Me moirs of Agho Pasha the Parrot” ), Istanbul 1338 (1922), in Roman script 1939; A y peşhinde (“ In Pursuit of the Moon” ), Istanbul 1339 (1923); Ghughu- klu sd-cat (“ The Cuckoo Clock” ), Istanbul 1341 (1925), in Roman script 1940; Bir avuö saöma (“ A Handful of Nonsense” ), Aleppo 1932.
(2) . S h o r t S to r ie s . Refik Khâlid’s short stories have been collected in Memleket Hikâyeleri (“ Stories from the Country” ), Istanbul 1335 (1919), in Roman script 1939 (French tr. Belkis Tavad, Contes turcs, Istanbul n.d.), sometimes considered as his master piece. Except for a few stories which belong to his early period (1909-12), these stories were written during his five-year exile in Anatolia where he was able to study closely the types and customs of vil lagers and provincial townspeople. An invaluable documentary on everyday life of pre-World War I Central Anatolia, these stories are told with a rare virtuosity of natural style unprecedented in modern Turkish literature. He observes and describes land scape, provincial towns and local types— peasants, shopkeepers, notables, teachers, khodjas and civil servants— with powerful realism, without always seeking to penetrate the soul of his characters. His Gurbet Hikâyeleri (“ Stories of Exile” ), Istanbul 1940, contain mainly sketches using much autobiographical material, a feature of his later works.
(3) . N o v e ls . Refik Khâlid wrote only one novel between 1909 and 1929, İstanbul'un İâ Yüzü (“ The inside Story of Istanbul” ), Istanbul 1336 (1920), in Roman script as İstanbul'un Bir Yüzü (“ One Face of Istanbul” ), Istanbul 1939, perhaps his best. Written in the form of a diary of a woman of humble origin, brought up in the mansion [konak) of a Hamldian paşha, this novel is a series of masterly sketches of Istanbul “ society” between 1900-20, where the last vestiges of the old régime, the influential magnates of the all-powerful committee of Union and Progress and the degenerate nouveaux-riches of the war years
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are depicted with scintillating and merciless sarcasm. After 1930 and particularly after his return from exile in 1938, he serialized in newspapers and maga zines a great number of popular novels (19 of which were published in book form and some also filmed) of mediocre literary value, written mainly for the purpose of making a living, as he himself admitted (Mustafa Baydar, Edebiyatçılarımız ne Diyorlar ?, Istanbul i960, 108). But some of these novels, par ticularly Sürgün (“ Exile” ), Istanbul 1941, Anahtar (“ The K ey” ), Istanbul 1947 and Bu Bizim Hayatımız (“ This is our Life” ), Istanbul 1950, are worth men tioning for many important autobiographical data and period descriptions. Among his non-political and non-satirical essays the volume Üç Nesil Üç Hayat (“ Three generations, Three ways of Life” ), Istanbul 1943, contains lively sketches of everyday life in Istanbul from the 1860s onwards. A considerable number of his essays and articles published in his very popular humorous magazine A y dede (from January 1922, 90 issues, and again in 1948-49, 125 issues) have not been collected in book form.
(4). P la y s . Refik Khâlid wrote two plays: Tiryaki Hasan Pasha, a historical play about the famous defender of the fortress of Kanizsa in Hungary in 1601. The play, which had a great success at the time (1909), has not been published. He wrote his second play, a one-act comedy, while in Syria: Deli (“ The Madman” ), Aleppo 1931, in Roman script, Istanbul 1939. It is the story of a mental patient restored to health who, on experiencing the effects of the radical social reforms of the 20s, goes irrevocably mad again. Kemal Atatürk stated on reading the play that “ it did not satirize the reforms but emphasized them” and on his suggestion, Refik Khâlid (together with the remaining survivors of the 150 “ undesirables” ) was included in the amnesty for the 15 th anniversary of the republic in 1938 (Y. K. Karaosmanoğlu, Gençlik ve Edebiyat Hatıraları, Ankara 1969, 87-90).
Refik Khâlid has been almost unanimously ac cepted as the unchallenged master of modern Turkish prose (Occasional reservations appear to be motivated by personal bias, e.g., Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, Siyasi ve Edebi Portreler, Istanbul 1968, 50-53). It has been said that no other writer wrote a more natural, spontaneous Turkish, based on the spoken language. This judgement is still held by many critics to be true even for contemporary literature. It is no doubt correct for the period 1908-28; but it has not been sufficiently noticed that the profound transformation of the language and style and literary taste which took place from the 1930s onwards is beginning to “ date” his language and style, which was truly un matched during the pre-reform period.
B ib lio g r a p h y : Ismâcil Habib, Türk Tedjed- düd edebiyyatl ta^rikhi, Istanbul 1340 (1924), 634-7; Edmond Saussey, Prosateurs turcs contemporains, Paris 1935, 215-27; Münci Enci, Kendi Yazıları ile Refik Halit, Istanbul 1943; Cevdet Kudret, Türk Edebiyatında Hikâye ve Roman, Ankara 1970, ii, 159-86; Behçet Necatigil, Edebiyatımızda İsimler Sözlüğü, revised 7th ed., Istanbul 1972, s.v.
(Fa h i r Îz)
KARBALÂ3, a p la c e in cI r â k some 60 mües SSW of Baghdâd celebrated by the fact that the Prophet’s grandson al-Husayn b. CA1I was killed and his decapitated body buried there (Kabr al-Husayn). For all these events, see a l-h u s a y n b. ca l i. When it became a place of pilgrimage, Karbalâ3 became known as Mashhad (al-) Husayn.
The name Karbalâ3 probably comes from the A ra maic Karbelâ (Daniel, III, 21) and from the Assyrian
Karballatu, a kind of headdress; see G. Jacob, Tür kische Bibliothek, xi, 35, n. 2. It is not mentioned in the pre-Islamic period. Khâlid b. al-Walid camped there after the capture of al-IJira (Yâküt, Buldan, iv, 250). A t al-Hä3ir, where al-Husayn was buried, the Kabr al-IJusayn was built and very soon began to attract pilgrims. As early as 65/684-5 we find Sulaymân b. Şurad going with his followers to IJusayn’s grave where he spent a day and a night (al-Tabari, ii, 545 ff.). Ibn al-Athir, v, 184, ix, 358, mentions further pilgrimages in the years 122/739-40 and 436/1044-5. The custodians of the tomb at quite an early date were endowed by the pious benefactions of Umm Müsä, mother of the Caliph al-Mahdi (al- Tabari, iii, 752).
The Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 236/850-1 destroyed the tomb and its annexes and had the ground levelled and sown; he prohibited under threat of heavy penalties visiting the holy places (al-Tabari, iii, 1407; Hamd Alläh al-Mustawfi, Nuzhat al-Kulub, ed. Le Strange, 32). Ibn Hawkal (ed. de Goeje, 166), how ever, mentions about 366/977 a large mashhad with a domed chamber, entered by a door on each side, over the tomb of Husayn, which in his time was already much visited b y pilgrims. Dabba b. Muhammad al- Asadi of cAyn al-Tamr, supreme chief of a number of tribes, devastated Mashhad al-IJä3ir (Karbalä3) along with other sanctuaries, for which a punitive expedition was sent against cAyn al-Tamr in 369/979- 80 before which he had fled into the desert (Ibn Miskawayh, Tadfdrib al-Umam, ed, Amedroz in The Eclipse of the Abbasid Caliphate, ii, 338, 414). In the same year, the Şhicî Büyid cAçlud al-Dawla [q.v.] took the two sanctuaries of Mashhad cAli (= al-Nadjaf) and Mashhad al-Husayn (M. IJâ3irî) under his special protection (Ibn al-Athir, viii, 518; Hamd Alläh al- Mustawfi, loc. cit.).
Hasan b. al-Fa<ll, who died in 414/1023-4, built a wall round the holy tomb at Mashhad al-IJusayn (Ibn Taghribirdi, Nudjüm, ed. Popper, ii, 123, 141), as he also did at Mashhad cAli (Ibn al-Athir, ix,
1 5 4) .
In Rabic I 407/Aug.-Sept. 1016, a great conflagra tion broke out caused by the upsetting of two wax candles, which reduced the main building (al-kubba) and the open halls (al-arwika) to ashes (Ibn al-Athir, ix, 209).
When the Saldjük Sultân Malik Şhâh came to Baghdâd in 479/1086-7, he did not neglect to visit the two Maşhhads of cAli and al-Husayn (Ibn al-Athir, x, 103). The two sanctuaries at this time were known as al-Maşhhadân (al-Bundarî-al-Işfahânî, Zubdat al-nuşra, ed. Houtsma, in Recueil des textes . . . , ii, 77) on the analogy of the duals al-cIräkän, al- Başratân, al-Hîratân, al-Mişrân, etc.
The Ilkhän Ghäzän in 702/1303 visited Karbalä3 and gave lavish gifts to the sanctuary. He or his father Arghün is credited with bringing water to the district by leading a canal from the Frät (the modern Nahr al-Husayniyya) (A. Nöldeke, Das Heiligtum al- Husains zu Kerbelä3, Berlin 1909, 40).
Ibn Battüta, ii, 99, visited Karbalä3 in 727/1326-7 from al-Hilla and describes it as a small town which lies among palm groves and gets its water from the Frät. In the centre is the sacred tomb; beside it is a large madrasa and the famous hostel (al-zdwiya) in which the pilgrims are entertained. Admission to the tomb could only be obtained by permission of the gate-keeper. The pilgrims kiss the silver sarcophagus, above which hang gold and silver lamps. The doors are hung with silken curtains. The inhabitants are divided into the Awläd Rakhik and Awläd Fäyiz,
